THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE COLONIAL ECONOMY OF NSUKKA DIVISION, 1912-1960

ABSTRACT

The focus of this study is the role of Women in the Colonial Economy of Nsukka Division from 1912-1960. The work is an analysis of the role which women played in the household economy and by extension the Colonial Economy. The work examined the culture and traditions of the people to be able to understand the roles the genders played before and during colonialism. The work is of the view that Colonialism was exploitative in all ramifications. It argues that women bore the burden of sustaining their families during the period under study as many of the economic policies were harsh leading to migrations of able bodied young men, leaving the responsibility of sustaining the families on the shoulders of women. The period saw an unprecedented division of labour in the household economy as men abandoned food crop production for trading. Most local industries suffered as they could not compete favourably with the cheap finished products of Europe and the West. Only very few industries survived the economic onslaught of western capitalism. The period also witnessed the invasion of the economic space which hitherto was the exclusive preserve of women by the men. Food crop production was abandoned by men who migrated to different parts of Nigeria in search of paid employment. The study concluded that women were the unsung heroines of the colonial economy in this period bestriding it as a colossus. The study uses historical research method. Primary, secondary and tertiary sources such as oral interviews, archival materials, journals, mimeographs, published and unpublished texts, were used as means of data collection for the historical reconstruction of the study.

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1. Introduction

Over the years, historical discourse and historical studies in Africa and elsewhere have dwelt largely on the exploits done by men in history and development. Historical discourse and writings therefore have been gender blind and gender insensitive. Thus, historical events were narrated portraying women not only as victims but in most cases as non-existent¹. Only recently have historians made concerted attempts to correct the biases, prejudices and distortion of African history as a result of the exclusion of women from the historical process by scholars. Consequently, enormous energy and resources have been invested by African scholars to reconstruct African history thereby giving Africa its pride of place in world history. In spite of this, there have been arguments that there is no need for a gendered history. ² According to this school of thought, historical actors were presented in non-gendered terms which include men and women. Others have questioned the usefulness of gender as a category in historical analysis.

Nevertheless, from the1970‟s the study of African women in history has received historical interest. This has been fostered by the international women movements and the general developments in African history since the Second World War (WW II). The problem of African development led to studies of women in the society, economy and politics to achieve equitable and sustainable development and change. The aim was to show that African women contributed to society and development in order to  Eno, “Feminism, Gender Studies and Historical Interpretation” in Women and Power in Africa in the 20^th and 21^th Centuries, Fragrance Publishers, Lagos, 2009,

 Ibi^d. S. Joan, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis” in, American Historical Review, 91, No. 5, 1985.

counterearlier assumptions of African women as passive, docile and dependent. ⁴ In Nigeria, like elsewhere in Africa there was a search for great women whose histories could be approximated to that of great men of history.These were histories of outstanding women such as Iyalode Efunsetan Aniwara, Fumilayo Ransom Kuti, and Margaret Ekpo, among others. However, this approach had its disadvantages asit sidelined and ignored the lives of the majority of women who were the masses in historical writings. The need to include such women resulted in the proper understanding of the role of women in the pre-colonial and colonial African societies as well as their role in the fight against colonialism. The colonial period saw a comparative decline of the fortunes of African women especially in South Eastern Nigeria which eroded the complementary dual-sex political and economic system that was practiced in the pre-colonial period that empowered women and accorded them higher status in the society. The colonial period saw the loss of autonomy and control over agricultural production and trade resulting in the masculinization of commerce and the economy. Even though colonialism eroded the already existing economic independence of women as witnessed during the pre-colonial period, women did not sit to bemoan their loses, rather, they took the bull by the horn fighting gallantly as Amazons to sustain their families and by extension the colonial economy. B. I. Eno, Feminism, Gender Studies and Historical Interpretation, the integration of household economy into the international capitalist economy from the first decade of the 20^th century witnessed a widening of the gap between classes and gender which greatly increased sexual inequalities.However, as we shall see in this study, Nsukka women were conspicuous in agriculture, trade and commerce, manufacturing and processing and even in the arts and crafts. Their impact on the colonial economy in spite of the absence of men who were engrossed with the exploitative colonial service and forced labour of the colonial administration cannot be overemphasized. Nsukka women made sure there was food for the family as co-bread winners with the men. They were also responsible for the harvesting and processing of cash crops such as palm produce which was very important to the colonial economy and industrial development in the metropolis. Thus, women‟s contribution helped to sustain the colonial economy. Women played indispensable roles in the sustenance of the colonial economy and the colonial state. They filled the vacuum that was created as men abandoned agriculture especially food production for white collar jobs and business opportunities. This break down in traditional socio-economic and family structure left a fractured community in which women were left to bear the socio-economic burden of maintaining and subsidizing the family economy by their increased roles in subsistent agricultural production. The study highlights the contributions of women to agriculture, trade and industry and how they strove to sustain the local and colonial economy, through their petty trading, long distant trade and agricultural activities. Other areas of importance in which women directly impacted on the colonial economy were identified, like in the area of H. Alahira, “The Role of Women in the Colonial Economy of Northern Nigeria: A Case Study of the Berom of the Jos Plateau, 1900-1960”, Ph.D Thesis, ABU, Zaria, 2002, caft,ottery making, weaving and textile and even in manufacturing where some of their products competed favorably with foreign manufactures. Colonial policies that impacted positively or negatively on Nsukka women with its attendant socio-economic and political consequences were also examined.

1.2.        Statement of the Research Problem

During the period under study (1912 – 1960) the economic, political and social institutions of the people of Nsukka Division were affected drastically. The principal factor affecting the development of the economy under British rule was the imposition of the colonial economy. The economy underwent dramatic changes in several respects including the role of women, with far reaching consequences. The colonial state was characterised by high level of changes in economic roles which affected the traditional division of labour. This study is an attempt to analyse the role of women under these changes.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The objective of this study is to historicise the role of women in the colonial economy of Nsukka. The study set out to contribute to the existing body of literature on the role of women in the colonial economy. The objective of this study is informed by the fact that women studies in the historiography of Africa and Nigerian history is a neglected area. The work took a look at lessons to be learned from the past, which could be useful in shaping attitudes, practices and policies to help in achieving equitable development and harmony between the genders and by extension the society. The study is expected to serve as a source material for the teaching of gender studies and other related courses and will also provide research materials to students of gender studies. The work will serve as a document which will help us to further understand and appreciate the role that women played in the colonial economy.

1.4.        Scope of the Study

Nsukka occupies the northernmost portion of South Eastern Nigeria.⁶ It is located on the fringes of the rain forest zone of Eastern Nigeria, lying on latitude 7⁰ and 8⁰ east and longitude 7⁰ and 8⁰ north of the River Niger.⁷ The work covered the area which was referred to as Nsukka Division during the period under study but which now covers Nsukka, Igbo-Eze North, Igbo-Eze South, Igbo-Etiti, Isi-Uzo, Udenu and Uzo-Uwani Local Government Areas. Nsukka is a frontier Igbo cultural group between the Igbo to the southeast, the Idoma to the northeast and the Igala to the north and northwest.⁸ It occupies a strategic position in the South East region as it served as a meeting point between traders from the North and from the rain forest zone of South Eastern Nigeria. The setting provided us with an opportunity to analyze the role of women in the key sectors of the colonial economy, such as palm produce production, agriculture, trade and commerce and the impact of colonial rule on women. The year 1912 has been selected as the starting point of the research study as it marks the establishment of provincial and divisional administration in Igboland generally and Nsukka in particular by the British imperialists as it was also elsewhere in the Nigeria area. The scope of the study then runs through the struggles of the women

A.E. Afigbo, Ropes of sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, University Press Limited, Nsukka, 1981,

Ibid.

Ibid.

A. E. Afigbo,  “Nsukka From Earliest Times to 1951”, A Seminar Paper Presented to the Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in, Nsukka: The Problems of Change and Continuity, 6^th – 11^th February, 1972. beginning in the periods of the amalgamation in 1914, the first world war from that year to 1918, the inter-war years, 1919-1939, the second world war, 1939-1945, the eras of militant nationalism in Nigeria, 1944-1951, internal self-government in 1957, and finally the attainment of political independence in 1960, which has also provided the raison d‟etre for the terminal year of the study. However there were limitations which hampered the research work. Firstly and most importantly, the National Archives at Enugu is virtually empty of materials relating to the colonial period. Most of the materials were removed to Ibadan during the Nigerian Civil War and were yet to be returned. The few works available were photocopies provided by early historians of Igbo extraction. These materials cannot easily be accessed even at Ibadan. This did not help matters in accessing data for a proper analysis of the research topic. Secondly was the issue of gender studies which is still at its embryonic stage. Hence to obtain data for a proper reconstruction of the role of women in the colonial economy was a herculean task.Finally and also important, the issue of funding was problematic. The researcher required to travel to Nsukka to conduct oral interviews, and very often, the fund for transportation was not readily available. There was also the issue of the informants not willing to divulge certain information because they were afraid that the researcher was an agent of government and was therefore sent to spy on them.

MAP OF IGBO TERRITORY c.1920

Adapted from Ilogu Edmond, Christianity and Igbo Culture: A Study in the Interaction of Christianity and Igbo Culture, Nok publishers, 1974,

MAP OF IGBOLAND SHOWING:

1. NSUKKA AREA
2. THE HOLY CITY OF NRI

• AROCHUKWU

Adapted from A.E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, University Press Ltd. Nsukka, 1991.

Adapted from A.E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, University Press Ltd. Nsukka, 1991

1.5. Relevance of the Study

Gender as a category of interrogation has become important in all fields of academic studies.¹⁰ The study of the role of women in the colonial economy is of paramount importance because it will help in shedding light on gender roles and gender relations in this period. This study examined the response of women to these relations and how they survived in spite of all hindrances and obstacles to their effective participation in development processes. Women have been regarded as the unsung heroines of the colonial period in Nigeria. Studies in gender roles in the colonial economy will help us to understand how women with every wind to the contrary sustained the colonial economy and ensured the survival of their families. This research is important because it revealed how Nsukka women bore the burden of their families with the integration of the household economy into the international capitalist economy. The study also sought to shed light on distortions by both African and Western Euro centric scholars who used western models in analyzing the African gender relations, resulting in the distortion of the role of African women in development. Such distortions have arisen from scholars who hold patriarchal ideologies as well.

1.6. Methodology

A research of this nature entails the use of variety of sources which can be classified as primary, secondary and tertiary sources. The sources provided us with a body of facts and empirical data for an objective historical reconstruction. The interdisciplinary approach was adopted that helped us to have a more holistic

• Ikpe, Feminism, Gender Studies and Historical Interpretation,

perspective of the role of women in the colonial economy. The study made intensive and extensive use of primary and secondary sources. Oral interviews also constituted a major source of data for this study. Adults between the ages of 60-100 years were interviewed. Archival materials constituted an important primary source material as well which was largely used in the conduct of this research. Both published and unpublished materials that are relevant to the topic and area of study were used such as seminar papers, theses, dissertations, books, professional journals, mimeographs, magazines and other publications were also used. Archival materials from the National Archives, Enugu, and the Aka Ikenga Centre for Historical Documentation wereextensively used. Materials from the Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Kashim Ibrahim Library, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and all other areas that made data available for an objective reconstruction of this historical work, were also used. Internet materials were extensively sourced out taking cognizance of the fact that the internet contains a lot of unverifiable materials and sources that needs critical analysis. The method of data presentation was descriptive, analytical and statistical.

1.7.        Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework indicates the most appropriate perspective, ideology or theory that will elucidate and explain facts, data and the historical process under study. Theories as framework of analysis helps a researcher to better explain situations and conditions, especially their dealings, relationships and roles performed by groups of people or individuals. Since this study focuses on gender, the gender perspective is adopted which is a holistic approach that looks at gender as a socially defined concept which is dynamic. The perspective looks at gender as what is socially constructed and generally accepted as the distinguishing factors between males and females. It implies the social characteristics of maleness and femaleness which goes beyond mere differences in the biological make up of males and females. It views women as a group socially defined by societal values such as traditions, norms, cultures, and religious beliefs that defines the parameter for their participation in socio-economic and political affairs of the society. It provides us with a means of having a proper understanding of the status and position of women and men in the society and also takes into account the impact of development on men and women.

1.8.        Justification of the Study

The study has brought out the response of women to these gender relations and how they survived in spite of all manipulations. Studies of gender roles during the colonial period have helped in understanding how women sustained the colonial economy and how they sustained their families through the economic hardship of the colonialperiod following the integration of the household economy into the international capitalist economy. The study also sheds light on distortions and bias by Western and Eurocentric writers who used Western models in analysing African gender relations. The study also examined the roles of women in the different sectors of the colonial economy and brought out factors that either limited or enhanced women`s abilities to participate in societal development. Thus, it serves as a major contribution to the study of the role of women and gender relations in the colonial and post-colonial periods.

1.9.        Review of Relevant Literature

There exists quite a significant number of literature published and unpublished in relation to women in the colonial economy of Nigeria and Igboland in particular. Most of the works written by western feminists and Eurocentric writers were biased. They were written from European perspective using European models as basis for their analysis. Other works exist which tried to portray the African woman as oppressed, subjugated, marginalized, isolated and therefore weak and docile. These works painted a picture of women‟s docility and helplessness under the whims and caprices of the men. But on the contrary, the African woman has strength, ambitions, and abilities, and very motivated, industrious and capable of taking initiatives. She could organize and mobilize as we saw in the “Nigeria women‟s war” of 1929-1930. African women have been capable of surmounting all obstacles to achieve their own success. The colonial period like any other period subjected them to a lot of difficulties, but the women were able to adapt to changes under colonialism. One scholarly work that contributed to this study is the work of Hannatu S. Alahira, a Ph.D thesis submitted to the Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, on “The Role of Women in the Colonial Economy of Northern Nigeria: A Case Study of the Berom of Jos Plateau, 1900-1960”. It is a well researched work, highly analytical with a very powerful use of the English language. The work based on the Berom in the tin mining area of Jos Plateau brought out the complementary role of women with men in the lineage household economy in the pre-colonial period. The work showed how the integration of the household economy into the international capitalist economy created a division of labour between the genders thereby widening the gap between the women and the men. Because the work was based on women in Northern Nigeria and in tin mining area the empirical evidence will be of relevance to the area of study situated in Eastern Nigeria in the Oil palm belt. Nevertheless, the theoretical perspective of the work will greatly enrich our study. Another work that contributed to this study is a Ph.D Thesis presented to the Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,by G.T. Emeagwali titled, “Model-Building Explanation and History: The Marxian Pre-capitalist Model and the Pre-capitalist Socio-Economic Formations in Igboland before 1900 and the Changing Nature of Dependent Relations, the Slaves, the Osu and Women”. The work used the Marxian theory in the analysis of social-relationships in the pre-capitalist Igbo society. However the author did not bring out the role of women in the pre-capitalist economy and how the incorporation of the economy into the international capitalist economy during the colonial period impacted on this role as that was not the real focus of the study. However, the work was of great use in our understanding of the pre-colonial Igbo economic relations. Another work that was of great use to this study is the work edited by E. B. Ikpe titled,Women and Power in Africa in the 20^th and 21^st Centuries. It is a collection of essays contributing to the on-going debate on the current issues of gender relations between genders in Africa. It discussed the significance of gender as an analytical category in historical reconstruction. The book identified areas of oppression against women and concluded that present economic structures are highly inequitable as women G.T. Emeagwali, “Model-Building, Explanation and History: The Marxian Pre-Capitalist Model and the Pre-Capitalist Socio-Economic Formations in Igboland”, Ph.DThesis, ABU Zaria. 1984 were denied access to economic resources and active participation in the economy. The book defined the concepts and theoretical assumptions on which gender studies is anchored. The work dwelt extensively on issues of oppression, marginalization and subordination of women. The contributors not being their focal point of analysis however,did not bring out the contributions of women in the colonial economy which is the main thesis of our study. However, the book was of great assistance with regard to the theoretical perspectives,especially relating to gender issues. Another book that assisted in this research work was edited by A. Sesay and A. Odebiyi, Nigeria Women in Society and Development. The book looks at various sectors in which women played their roles and revealed the constraints to gender equity and full participation of women as participants and beneficiaries of the various sectors of economic development. Though dated in the post colonial era, it was good for comparative purposes. A Ph.D Thesis presented to the Faculty of Graduate Theological Foundation, Indiana and Fordham University, New York by R. N.Uchem was also of great assistance. The work entitled “Overcoming Women Subordination: An Igbo African and Christian Perspective: Envisioning an Inclusive Theology with Reference to Women” examines the problem of women‟s cultural subordination within the context of African History and United Nations global facts and statistics on women. It focused on the subtle biblical and cultural myths by which women were manipulated to accept their own oppression, to co- operate in maintaining it and to resist their liberation. The work identified those cultural and religious myths which elude the attention of many advocate of women‟s right. The Ikpe, Women and Power, p vii.

• Uchen, N.R. Overcoming Women’s Subordination, An Igbo African and Christian Perspective Dissertation.com/libra

existence of such myths and all its manipulations is acknowledged, but it should be stressed that the African woman has shown strength and resistance to them. The African woman has not sat to bemoan her oppression, marginalization, subjugation, among others, but has participated actively in the sustenance of her family, oftentimes as bread winners, and also in the colonial economy. And the colonial period could be said to be the period when the political and economic importance of women was made manifest with the 1929-1930 “Nigeria women‟s war”, otherwise known as Aba Women Riots, which was aimed at denouncing and revolting the obnoxious British colonial taxation and other colonial exploitative measures meted on the women and the society. The book by Professor Onwuka Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria,the 19th and 20^thCenturies¹⁴was also of immense assistance. The book is an incisive and a critical analysis of the Nigerian economy, as a coherent and spatial process. The book is thematic and chronological, and its analysis is anchored on the internal dynamics of the economy along with their external conjectures. The key sectors of agriculture, manufacturing and distribution are the pivots around which the author‟s discussion revolves. But like most works on history of Africa and Nigeria in particular, no place was given by the author to demonstrate the contributions of Nigerian women to the growth and development of the Nigerian economy which will have been of great application to understanding the role of women in Nsukka Division in the colonial period. Therefore, this study is an attempt to bridge the gap, to show the contributions of women in the key sectors of the colonial economy of Nsukka Division and how their contribution impactedon the colonial economy.

Onwuka Njoku, Economic History of Nigeria, the 19th and 20^thCenturies, Magnet Business enterprise, Enugu, 2001

Another book, Topics in Igbo History, edited by Onwuka Njoku and Obi Iwuagwu consist of chapters which vary in theme, time and perspective and addressed the all-important issue of Igbo food economy and shows not just the centrality of food farming in the life and culture of the people, but that agriculture provided the basis for the development of other non-agricultural pursuits. The technological, organizational and cultural basis of the people‟s agricultural practices was discussed with unusual insight. However, the essayists were entirely silent on the contributions of women to the development of agriculture and food production and other sectors of the Igbo economy. This research is therefore, a major contribution to fill the gender gap. Finally, TheHistory of Igboland in the 19^th and 20^th Centuries by R. A. O. Ikenga, a Professor of History at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, reveals the impact of Colonial domination on Igboland in the 20^th Centuries. It examined the major military expeditions and administrative reforms introduced by the British Colonial State. The book also examined Igbo economy in the 20^th century: agriculture and industrial production, trade and commerce. It also discussed the currency revolution and the development of Igbo society. Apart from two pages devoted to the women war (Aba women Riot) of 1929 and 1930, the role of women in the development of Eastern Nigeria was not fully discussed. Even the consequences of the riot on the colonial economy were conspicuously absent. This study on Nsukka women showed how Igbo women through their active participation in agriculture, trade and commerce, industry and the crafts contributed to the development of the local economy as well as the colonial economy.

1.10.    Summary

The introduction to this dissertation tried to provide the basis for the reconstruction of the role of women in the colonial economy of Nsukka Division from 1912-1960. The major questions that the dissertation set out to address have been presented. The need to expand knowledge on Nigeria‟s colonial history as it affected gender roles formed the aims and objectives of the study. In addition, this chapter outlined the scope, methodology, and theoretical framework under which the research work has been written as well as the relevant literature and materials necessary for its consummation. The chapter also discussed the major limitations of the dissertation and the efforts and measures undertaken to ensure its reconstruction.

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