ABSTRACT
Spatial-temporal variability in the water quality of hand-dug wells was investigated in Minna and Environs. Hand dug well water pollution is a major problem in the study area. Hence, the need to carry out groundwater quality assessment using spatial analyst tool in GIS in the study area becomes imperative. The Study analysed selected physicochemical and microbiological parameters of hand dug well water. Mixed methods approach of quantitative and qualitative research methods were adopted. A total of twenty four water samples were collected for both rainy and dry season from four locations and taken to the laboratory for the physicochemical (colour, odour, pH, Temperature, Turbidity, Conductivity, TDS, Cl– SO4, NO3, Acidity, Alkalinity, TH and TSS) and bacteriological (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, S. typhi) analysis in order to determine the level of pollutant concentration and the results were compared with NSDWQ and WHO standards. Standard laboratory testing methods were applied. Statistical analyses was conducted using one way ANOVA and Duncan PostHoc. WQI and Inverse Distance Weighted Technique in GIS were used for spatial distribution of Parameters. The results indicates that the physicochemical parameters analysed were within the NSDWQ and WHO recommended standards for both rainy and dry season except colour, odour Cl– and TH which exceeded the permissible standards. Just one sample and four samples during the rainy and dry season were recorded brown and slightly brownish respectively. Odour was detected in two samples only in the rainy season. The TH was significantly (p<0.05) highest in MK (626.67±174.58 mg/l) and MT (540.00±255.02) during dry season than the rainy season exceeding the NSDWQ (2007) and WHO (2011) limits of 500 mg/l respectively. While Cl– were significantly highest in MK (389.95±48.39 mg/l) and MR (291.88±49.35 mg/l) exceeding the permissible limit of 250 mg/l given by NSDWQ and WHO respectively. The result of microbiological parameters indicated that all the sample wells were significantly contaminated with the pathogenic bacteria and have exceeded the NSDWQ permissible limit of 0 cfu/ml. except that seasonal variation shows that S. aureus was not detected during dry season in MR and P. aeruginosa was not detected in CH and MT during rainy and dry seasons respectively. The results of WQI indicates that the physicochemical aspect of the water in the study area belongs the excellent and good water quality class during the rainy season while excellent, good and poor were recorded during the dry season. The study revealed that the physicochemical parameters of the well water samples of the study area are generally suitable for drinking and for domestic purposes while for the microbiological parameters shows that there is high contamination of pathogenic bacteria  which is an indication of faecal contamination  due to poor sanitation and hygiene. The hardness of the water should be soften for domestic purposes through the use of Soda and simple home white vinegar to neutralise excess calcium. The contaminated wells with pathogenic bacteria should be chlorinated with the help of a professional using at least unscented household liquid bleach of 1 gallon (3.79 litres) for a shallow or dug well of about 5.45 metres deep. Water contaminated with pathogenic bacteria should be boiled before use. The individual well owners should provide protective cover for the Wells and ensure proper hygiene and sanitation around the well water environment. Finally, treated water/boreholes should be made for all residence in Minna and environs.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Before the existence of boreholes and hand dug wells, rainfall, streams, ponds, and rivers were the major sources of drinking water to the people of Nigeria. In contemporary Nigeria, boreholes water can be access in some areas as a result of development. Lack of rapid development, economic capabilities and high population rate, the boreholes water is either not adequate or not affordable to common man. Therefore, the common man had to resort to digging wells as the only alternative source of water for drinking and for daily domestic and commercial purposes (Bremer and Harter, 2012). However, 52% of Nigerians cannot access improved water supply for drinking (Orebiyi et al., 2010).
Groundwater is seen as the most essential and valuable natural resources, expected to be free from contamination. However, this water resource is often contaminated by numerous ways (Ponniah et al., 2012). Groundwater gets contaminated with various contaminants produced from diverse sources such as agriculture, industrial and domestic. The abundance of this significant natural resource has been taken for granted increased use of ground water and contaminate generated has crossed the limits of sustainability in many parts, due to rapid change in land use form. Population growth has led to marvellous increase in demand for fresh water due to extreme agricultural activities. With rapid growth in population and industry, quality of groundwater become vulnerable by disposal of municipal and industrial solid waste (Raju et al., 2011).
Groundwater pollution take place when wastewater is reverted to the hydrological cycle (Azadeh and Basavarajappa, 2009). Severe application of fertilizers, agrochemicals, sewage/drain water and mining activities on major lineaments are observed to be a serious threat to groundwater quality (Azadeh and Basavarajappa, 2009). Water is vital for human survival and reproduction of all biotic life and is the key to socio – economic development and quality of life (Ponniah et al., 2012).
Related water diseases are accountable for 80% of different sickness in the developing countries and eradicate more than 5 million persons every year (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2007). The major drinking water sources, principally in African countries are from surface water, boreholes, deep and shallow wells, dug outs, streams and rivers which are mostly of poor quality. Water quality is an increasing concern all over the developing world (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF, 2013) and sources of water for drinking are continuously threatened from contamination. This has both public health and socio-economic consequences (UNICEF, 2013). Faecal contamination of drinking water is a chief contributor to diarrhoea and other water borne diseases, and is accountable for the death of millions of children each year (UNICEF, 2013).
Groundwater usually varied in quality depending on the geographical location, recharge water quality, lithology and environmental influences etc. The valuation of hydro chemical flow systems is centred on the availability of information of groundwater chemistry. Concurrently, the elements responsible for groundwater quality are the geological site, source rocks property, constituents of recharge water, soil formation, lithology and the length of time that the water body has been trapped underground (Faniran  et  al.,  2004;  Giridharan  et  al.,  2008).  These  driving  elements  and  their interrelations create critical groundwater quality (Nishanthiny et al., 2010). Nonetheless, water to be fit for different uses is determined by the physicochemical, biological and radiological properties of water (Ondor and Addo, 2013).
The dependency on Groundwater resources are on a very high level since it is utilised for various activities ranging from domestic, agriculture, commercial and industrial. This high dependency resulted in pressure on existing groundwater resources in relation to quality and quantity (Piscopo, 2001). Groundwater susceptibility to contamination is the tendency and possibility for all form of contaminants to get to the water table after introduction at the ground surface (Scotland and Northern Ireland forum for Environmental Research (SNIFFER, 2004). The groundwater generated by a well or the one confined within an aquifer of any geographical area has some susceptibility to contamination from anthropogenic activities.
Therefore it is important to acquire information about the groundwater quality to contamination to allow groundwater planning and management by relevant authorities. Additionally, the information obtained on groundwater quality can simplify the selection of suitable locations for certain human activities so that the negative effects on groundwater are reduced to the least and protection of groundwater is attained (Adnan and Iqbal, 2014).
1.2 Statement of the Research problem
A number of studies have been conducted on groundwater quality both in developed countries and Africa particularly Nigeria. These including Ndamitso et al. (2013); Eseoghene et al., (2013); Amadi et al. (2015); Paul and Salifu (2015); Duvbiama and Egbuna (2013), which provided useful information on groundwater quality. However,
based on the published thesis and journals, little studies were carried out in the study area with regard to groundwater quality and none of these published thesis and journals have utilised spatial analyst tool in GIS to map the distribution of groundwater pollutants of the study area. The present study is intended to bridge this gap.
Sequel to series of public complains by residents of Morris community in Minna to National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) of Niger State Field Office on the pollution of their groundwater (Hand dug wells) sources, which may be from the chemical effluent emanating from the production processes of fertilizer blending plant of Morris Nigeria Limited situated within the community. Compliance monitoring and inspection carried out by NESREA reveals that the facility usually keeps their chemical raw materials directly on bare ground in an open space (NESREA, 2018), these may be a potential point source of groundwater contamination.
Consequently, the need to carry out groundwater quality assessment in the study areas becomes imperative in order to provide useful information to aid policy formulation, planning and implementation.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this research is to investigate the spatial-temporal variability in the quality of hand-dug wells in Minna and environs. The aim will be achieved through the following Objectives to:
a. Analyse the physicochemical parameters of the sampled Hand dug well water.
b. Determine the microbiological parameters of the sampled Hand dug well water. c. Map the distribution of groundwater pollutants.
1.4 Research Questions
1. What are the concentration levels of physicochemical parameters of the sampled Hand dug well?
2. What are the concentration levels of microbiological parameters of the sampled Hand dug well?
3. What are the distribution of groundwater pollutants?
1.5 Justification for the Study
Besides air, water is vital to human life as the human body cannot usually live longer than several days without. Water is not only vital to life but to every living cell and organ in the body, which is beyond half of the human body weight (Akpe, 2011). Inadequate sanitation contaminates water ways worldwide and is also among the most important causes of water contamination (UNICEF and WHO, 2008). In a statement issued by WHO 2011, 2.4 billion people globally live without better-quality sanitation facility. Around the world, at least 2 billion people use faecal contaminated drinking water sources. Contaminated water can cause diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid, polio and cholera. Contaminated drinking water is evaluated to cause five hundred and two thousand (502, 000) diarrhoeal deaths every year (WHO, 2018).
According to WHO, there are 2.1 billion persons lacking safe drinking-water services as at 2015, out of this figure 423 million individuals are collecting drinking water from exposed wells and springs (WHO, 2018). Likewise in Nigeria the figures indicates that 70 million Nigerians are devoid of access to clean drinking water, lack of access to better sanitary services by 102 million Nigerians and open defecation by 33milion Nigerians. (Akpe, 2011). To further justify the study Ndamitso et al. (2013) in their article stated that getting good drinking water is among the challenges faced by many households in Minna and other parts of Niger State which has led to the dependency on other water sources to augment the unreliable supply made by the government.
Inadequate regulating and controlling of urban, industrial, and agricultural wastewater means the drinking-water of hundreds of millions of people could be contaminated or chemically polluted. Diarrhoea is the disease known around the world to be associated with contaminated food and water besides other hazards. schistosomiasis was reported to have affected about 240 million people – usually caused by parasitic worms when an individual is exposed to infested water, it is a very chronic disease (WHO, 2018).
This research study will serve as a contributing document to existing knowledge in the area of water quality and management for the general public, water board managers, governments and for further research in this area. Water supply in Minna is obviously insufficient specifically during the dry season and many inhabitants depend on hand-dug wells and boreholes for their daily water needs. Hence the need to find out the Contamination status of groundwater from the study area (Amadi et al., 2015).
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This Study focused mainly on the investigation of the spatial-temporal variability in the quality of hand dug wells Minna and environs, Niger State. The scope of the study covers four (4) selected areas in Minna and Environs. These areas include: Maitumbi (MB), Maikunkele (MK), Chanchaga (CH) and Morris (MR). A total of 24 water samples from 12 wells for both rainy and dry seasons were collected. Three samples were collected from each of the selected areas to determine the physicochemical and microbiological properties of the Hand dug well water samples and compare the results with Nigerian
Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ), NESREA and World Health Organisation (WHO) standards for drinking water quality and finally produce distribution of groundwater pollutants thematic maps of the study areas.
The study was limited by lack of funds, considering the land mass and dependency on groundwater sources in Minna and environs more Well water samples should have been collected from other locations to increase the spatial extent of the study area but the water samples collected were limited to 24 from 12 Wells for both rainy and dry season.
1.7 Study Area
1.7.1 Location
The four (4) Study areas are found in Bosso and Chanchaga Local Government areas located in Niger state. The state lies between Longitude 3Ëš30′ and 7Ëš20’E and Latitude 8Ëš22′ and 11Ëš30’N of Guinea Savanna vegetation zone in the north central part of Nigeria which is also classified as the middle belt of Nigeria.
Niger State land mass covers 76,363 square kilometres or about 8% of Nigeria’s total land area. This makes the state outsized every other state in Nigeria. Niger State shares common boundaries with six states in the country and one international namely; Kebbi and Zamfara state in the North, Kaduna State and Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja in the Northeast and Southeast of Niger state respectively. Kwara and Kogi States in the South and Benin Republic in the west (Ayinde et al., 2013).
1.7.2 Climate
The study area is characterised by distinct rainy and dry seasons with annual rainfall ranging from 1,100mm in the northern parts to 1,600mm in the southern parts of the state. The highest temperature recorded is typically not more than 94oC between March and June, while the lowest temperature in record is normally between December and January. However, rainy season’s duration is about one hundred and twenty (120) days in the southern areas to about one hundred and fifty (150) days in the northern areas of the State. By and Large, the rich soil and hydrology of Niger State permits the cultivation of most of Nigeria’s staple crops and still allows ample opportunities for foraging, fishing and forestry development (Ayinde et al., 2013).
1.7.3 Geology of the study area
There are two major soil types in Minna and its environs this include the Sedimentary belt in the southern and south western ends of the area and pre-Cambrian Basement complex rock which is found in abundance above 80 percent of the area. The Sedimentary formation, lies within the middle belt sandstones, it majorly consist of fine grained sandstones combine with grits, siltstone and clay lens. On the other hand the Basement complex comprises of a variety of rock types which are categorised into three broad group (Niger State Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2017).
     The Igneous rocks in the study area are mostly of biotitic granite and syenite. The rock domes and great hills are mostly made up of granites found in the north eastern and north western parts of the state (NBS, 2017).
The second group is the migmatites and genesis complex which are seen as metamorphic rocks, comprising of gneiss, migmatite, granite and porphyritic gneiss. (NBS, 2017).
Thirdly, Schists, including biotite/muscovite schists, muscovite and tale schists with quartzite intrusive formed the rugged landscape in the eastern and southern parts of the state (NBS, 2017).
The migmatite, granite, gneiss and biotite granite feature the site of the area. These are rocks of medium to high strength which were not assumed to pose serious threat to engineering activities and the rocks are largely quartz-rich and acidic types which formed the general sandy nature of the soil, particularly on the Robo and Rubochi plains. The plains are known to contain the best fertile soils and the best agricultural lands of all the plains while the abundance of sand in most soils in the area accounts for the relatively high erosion status. Nevertheless, one significant benefit about the types of rocks and soil found in the state is that these rocks and soil are available as construction materials in the form of building stones, quartz and pistolitic gravel, building sands and earth for use as foundation materials (NBS, 2017).
1.7.4 Soils and vegetation
There are three main types of soil found in the State. These soils include the hydromorphic soils, ferruginous tropical soils and ferrosols. The major soil type is the ferruginous tropical soils, mainly derived from the Basement Complex rocks, and also from old sedimentary rocks. Such ferruginous tropical soils are best for the cultivation of groundnut, maize, guinea corn and millet (NBS, 2017).
The type of soils basically found in the wide flood plain of the Niger River are the Hydromorphic or waterlogged soils. The soils drain poorly and are usually greyish or sometimes whitish in appearance resulting from the great content of silt. The Niger trough harbours sandstone formations on which Ferrosols developed. They are characterise with red colour rich with clay sub soil noticeable in the landscape. Termite hills mark the landscape, expecially between Mokwa, Bida and Kontagora. These can been observed along the major highways in the state (NBS, 2017).
The study area is located within the Savana zone vegetation of Nigeria, however, patches of rain forest, are seen in the plains that form one of the enduring northern-most mature forest vegetation in Nigeria. The vegetation of the study area is categorised as part of the main Savannah vegetation types of park or grassy which occupies nearly 53% of the whole area and where the vegetation is annually; the Savana woodland covers 12.8% of the rugged and less accessible parts of Robo and Rubochi plains and surrounding hills as the main areas of its occurrence. The Shrub Savannah and the ridges dominates nearly 12.9% of the land extent which is seen extensively in rough terrain close to hills (NBS, 2017).
This material content is developed to serve as a GUIDE for students to conduct academic research
SPATIAL-TEMPORAL VARIABILITY IN THE WATER QUALITY OF HAND DUG WELLS IN MINNA AND ENVIRONS, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA
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