MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY AND POTENTIAL USES OF CLAY IN PANDOGARI AREA, NORTH-CENTRAL, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The basement rock of Pandogari lies within the BirninGwari – Zungeru area in the NW block of the Nigeria Basement Complex that form part of southern sector of the Pan-Africa mobile belt of West Africa. The study area lies between between latitude 10° 21ʹ 00ʺ to 10° 25ʹ 00ʺ N and longitude 6° 23ʹ 00ʺ to 6° 30ʹ 00ʺ Eof Tegina Sheet 142NE. This study is aimed at evaluating the mineralogical and chemical characteristics of clay minerals occurrence in Pandogari area and its economic benefits through geological mapping and geochemical study. Thirteen (13) Clay samples and seven (7) rocks were obtained from exposure along roads using hammer and hand trowel. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) techniques and petrographic studies were carried  out. The X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis results unveiled mineralogical composition of the clay samples to be quartz, muscovite, kaolinite, illite, chlorite and mortimorinolite while X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)  analysis revealed major oxides of SiO2   (53.10 – 93.60%),  MgO (0.02 – 0.10%), Fe2O3 (1.24 – 10.02%), CaO (0.05 – 0.81%), Al2O3 (2.00 –  20.00%). Geological field work results revealed rocks comprising mica schist and phyllite that were intruded by typical Pan-Africa granitic rocks, poor exposure of mica schist and phyllite shows variation in  degree  of  weathering  ranging  from  intermediate  to  strong  weathering  and  the depositional environment shows that Pandogari clay belongs to Non-marine source. The schist which are (metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks) and the Older Granites (Pan African  Granitoids),  older  granite  intruded  the  schist  forming  batholitic  ridges  and batholite. The mineralogical composition of quartz, muscovite and abundance of major and trace elements in the clay shows evidence of felsic protolith as the source rocks, intensive weathering and alteration of the feldspars in-situ. Also the low/high concentration of some minerals and elements in the clay samples in the study area suggest it could be used for ceramic and refractory brick, also the clay require beneficiation to meet specific industrial applications. Clay as an industrial mineral will improve the economy of the nation if attention is given to the mineral.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0      INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

Nigeria as a nation is on increasing demand for mineral resources, the country is so blessed with numerous mineral resources and these resources are for industrial purposes and they are of economic importance, such as constructional materials, electronic materials, metallurgical purposes, agricultural and pharmaceutical.

Both the basement and sedimentary rocks are host of mineral deposit in Nigeria and it is undermined for various political reasons and policies. Basement rocks that host minerals are fractured and healed and some disseminated in them, some sedimentary rocks also host  some  minerals  which  can  be found in  alluvial  deposit  and  also  as  secondary concentration (halo) form which are to be considered targets for mineral exploration.

Clay  as  mineral  is  interconnected  silicate  sheets  with  a  metal  atom;  oxygen  and hydroxyl grouped in sheets form Two-layered minerals, such as kaolinite. The latter flakes are found interposed between two silicate lamellae, resulting in three layers of minerals, such as vermiculite. During lithification, compacted layers of clay can turn into shale. Under the intense heat and pressure that can form in the layers, shale can turn into slate.

According  to  Chatterjee  (2009),  the  US  Bureau  of  Mines  (USBM)  and  the  US Geological  Survey  (USGS)  has  adopted  it  as  a  simple  and  general  definition  that explains clays as hydrated aluminosilicates of a large number of mineral species, with different proportions of mixed elements.

Clay minerals consist of hydrated aluminous phyllosilicates, which sometimes contain varying quantities of iron, magnesium, alkali metals, alkaline earths and other cations (Schulze, 2005). They are a typical by-product of weathering of materials (including weathering of feldspar and mica) and low-temperature hydrothermal alteration. Clay minerals are generally produced over time by the progressive chemical weathering of (usually siliceous) rocks by low levels of carbonic acid and other dilute solvents. These solvents (usually acids) often move through the weathered rock after leaching through the upper weathering layer (Mourad, 2010).

Clay minerals are typical of certain weathering settings and their study could allow for the reconstruction of the paleo-environments in which they were formed or eventually deposited (Obaje et al.,2013).

Clay minerals as explained by Chatterjee (2009) include the following groups:

A. Kaolinite Group [(OH)8Al4Si4O10] or [Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O]

1. Kaolinite

Kaolinite is a clay mineral having the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a bedded silicate mineral with a single tetrahedral disc bonded by oxygen atoms to a single octahedral aluminium disc (Deer et al., 1992). Rocks abundant in kaolinite are known as porcelain or porcelain clay.

The kaolinite framework comprises a tetrahedral layer of silica and an octahedral layer of alumina, bonded with a general layer of oxygen and hydroxyl acids (Figure 1.1). This structural unit is classified as a 1:1 layered clay. The tetrahedral silica layer and the octahedral alumina layer have little, if any, substitution of any other element (Al Ani and Olli, 2008).

Physical attributes and chemical properties that may be important are as follows: kaolin is  chemically neutral  over  a  relatively wide  pH  range  (4-9),  has  low  thermal  and electrical conductivity, is hydrophobic, readily dispersible in water, has a low temperature and electrical conductivity, is easily dispersed in water, and is easily dispersed in water and can be heat worked or calcined to produce this product which is an excellent filler and expander (Murray, 2007).

2. Nacrite

3. Dickite

4. Anauxite

B. The Smectite Group (an early name for the montmorillonite group).

Some smectite groups, which include dioctahedralsmectites, example montmorillonite and nontronite, and trioctahedralsmectites, example soapstone. Most important smectite minerals are sodium montmorillonite, calcium montmorillonite, soapstone (magnesium montmorillonite), notronite (iron montmorillonite), hectorite (lithium montmorillonite) and bedelite.

The nature of the composition is uncertain, one suggestion is [(Al,Mg)8(Si4O10)3(OH)20.nH2O] Pusch and Karnland (1996). The very fine particle size, swelling and flake shape give sodium montmorillonite the ability to form almost impenetrable membranes for the passage of water. This renders it well suited as a sealant for filling irrigation canals and landfills and for forming an impervious seal on permeable layers in oil and gas drilling to control fluid loss (Murray, 2007).

1. Montmorillonite

2. Beidellite

3. Nontronite

4. Hectorite

C. Illite Group: Contains iron, magnesium and potassium.

The illite group, which encompasses clayey micas. This periodically arranged illit- mectite is called rectorite (Moore & Reynolds, 1997). The physical and chemical properties are highly variable, so these common clays are used for very specific end uses. The physical properties that are generally important are related to their use in the making of building products, such as bricks and tiles. These properties are ductility, green strength, dry strength, shrinkage in dry and baked form, colour in baked form, strength in baked form, different glass content and density in baked form (Murray,

2007).

D. Halloisite: Contains more water than Kaolinite.

1. Halloisite

2. Metahalloisite

3. Allophane

4. Endellite

E. Palygorskite: Contains magnesium instead of aluminium.

The small particle size, large surface area (190 m2/g) and moderate exchange capacity give palygorskite and sepiolite a high capacity to absorb and adsorb a range of liquids, making them very useful in many industrial applications. Another attractive property is that the elongated thin particles provide high viscosity when added to a liquid. This is a physical rather than chemical viscosity, making it very stable as a viscosity and suspension medium in many applications where sodium montmorillonite would flocculate at high salt concentrations or high electrolyte concentrations. Many practices are related to sorption and viscosity (Murray, 2007).

1. Sepiolite

2. Attapulgite

F. Chlorites: Magnesium-rich clay minerals.

The chlorite group which are magnesium rich which includes a large number of related minerals with important chemical properties differences (Pauling, 1930).

Bergaya and Langley (2013), explains that clay which people used in early ancient times, it has become a necessity for modern life. It is the material for many types of ceramics, such as porcelain, tiles, tiles and sanitary ware, as well as a basic ingredient in plastics, paints, paper, rubber and cosmetics. It is also non-polluting and can be used as a pollution remover.

The clay is soft, white plastic clay composed mainly of the mineral kaolinite, which is a hydrated aluminium silicate. It is produced by the modification of feldspar and muscovite. Clay deposits are classified as primary or secondary. Primary clays are the result of residual weathering or hydrothermal modification and secondary clays are of sedimentary origin (Al Ani & Olli, 2008).

Clay deposits are usually connected with depositional environments with very low energy, such as large lakes and marine sediments. Clay is one of the most commonly used industrial minerals, with a total world production of over 25 million tons, as a result of secondary deposition processes (Mourad, 2010).China is a major producer of kaolin with 2.1 million tonnes in 2002, accounting for 8.4% of total world production of

24.9 million tonnes (Wilson, 2004). Although used primarily in papermaking, which accounts for about 75% of world production, clay has traditionally found applications in the ceramic, rubber, dye, plastics and pharmaceutical industries (Murray, 2000). The use of clays is multifaceted and extends to various fields such as geology, construction, and environmental   remediation,   pharmaceutical   and   cosmetic   industries.   These   uses continue to improve with the addition of clays.

Clay is one of the most used industrial minerals; its total world production exceeds 25 million tons, with China being the major producer of kaolin with 2.1 million tons in 2002. Although it is mainly used in papermaking, which accounts for about 75% of world production.

These applications continue to improve with the synthesis of other materials such as zeolites and nano-composites of clay minerals and polymers using clay as a model (Yaya, 2017). The diverse industrial uses of clay are governed by specific features for each technological usage.

Clay can either be of basement origin as a result of the alteration of feldspar and muscovite also known as primary origin also it could be through the sedimentary origin, that kaolinite were formed elsewhere and were transported and deposited, diagenesis and weathering could also play some role in the formation process.

Clay is a creamy white to dark brown soft clay mineral coloured by iron oxides/hydroxides (and/or rutile/anatase). Its main component is kaolinite (Al2O3∙2SiO2∙2H2O), a hydrated aluminosilicate in which a tetrahedral layer of silica is bonded to an octahedral layer of alumina through oxygen atoms (Olaremu, 2015).

1.2       Mode of Formation of Clay

Clays are formed from different environment, some could be from sedimentary environment as a result of weathering process and also basement environment, it could also be from hydrothermal alteration of volcanic activities as shown diagrammatically in figure 1.7

There are various processes involved in the mode of formation of clay deposits which are described below;

1.   Clay Derived from Chemical Weathering of K-feldspar

The following chemical equation describes the chemical weathering process of the K- feldspar to clay final product.

3KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ →KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 6SiO2 + 2K+

K-feldspar              Mica                      Quartz

2KAl3SiO10(OH)2 + 2H+ + 3H2O→ 3Al2SiO5(OH)4 + 2K+

Mica Kaolinite

Kaolinite  is  a  natural  product  of  mica,  plagioclase  and  sodium-potassium  feldspar altered under the influence of water, soluble carbon dioxide and organic acids.This

Kaolinite are part of the constituent of clay, and it is when the major constituent is higher that it is called kaolin clay

2.   Clay Mineral Derived from Weathering of Feldspar

Clay is formed mainly by the disintegration of feldspar (potassium feldspar), granite and aluminosilicates. The type of clay minerals that are formed during the decomposition of rocks containing aluminosilicates is influenced by climate, aluminum/silica ratio and Ilmenite is an intermediate weathering product that can be formed from feldspar or mica. Potassium ion depletion in mica is a diffusion-controlled phenomenon, with K+ release from biotite roughly two magnitudes faster than from dolomite, and clay formation precedes illite, which at shallow depths can directly precipitate from clay (De- Almeida, 1999).

Clay  is  a  marl  alteration  product  due  to  hydrothermal  action.  Clay  minerals  are generally arranged in layers around the source of alteration, with mica and kaolin close to the source of alteration, while chlorite and montmorillonite are farther away. The alteration products of silver tuff are also known to be connected with hot springs and geysers. In addition, clays are formed as weathering processes of aluminosilicates. The characteristics of the clay minerals that occur in a soil depend on the properties of the source material, the climate, the topography, the vegetation and the time at which these variables (Obaje et al., 2013).

1.3       Mode of Occurrence of Clay

Clay occurs in chlorite schist, gneisses and dolomites. It is usually originated from Mg- bearing sedimentary rocks or from ultramafic igneous rocks, the former being purer than  the  latter.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  produced  by  metamorphism  under  high temperatures and/or pressures caused by geological disturbances, magmatic intrusions, etc. In the second case, it is produced by hydrothermal modification of non-aluminous magnesian silicates (examples are asbestos, amphibole and pyroxene).

Clay may occur as flakes and fibres or lumps. The latter are sometimes called ‘massive clay’ or ‘lava’ (a common name for any clay or soapstone) or ‘massive hard clay’ (a specific name for a variety of hard stone that occurs in large form) or ‘French chalk’ (a very soft and large kind of clay) Chatterjee (2009). In Nigeria kaolin bearing rocks occur within the schist belts of the basement complex, Okunlola et al.(2011).

Notable occurrence can be found in Kagara, North-western Nigeria and Itagunmodi- Igun area within the Ilesha schist belt South-west Nigeria where Clays occur as disconnected lenticular enclaves in massive-textured amphibolites and quartz-biotite schist, Olajide et al. (2018).This is consistent with the contention that kaolin claystones in Nigeria are closely associated with mafic and ultramafic rocks, Bolarinwa et al. (2015).

Clay is one of the most diverse industrial materials. It is chemically neutral over a fairly wide pH range, changes colour from white to brown and red, and has suitable properties for coatings when used as a pigment or thinner.

The clay is soft, non-abrasive and has low thermal and electrical conductivity. Some applications of clay, such as paper coatings or fillers in paints and plastics, require very stringent specifications, including particle size, colour, brightness and viscosity, while other applications do not require specifications, such as in cement, where chemical composition is paramount. The paper industry consumes the largest amount of clay, which is used both as filler and as a coating material on paper surfaces to increase print enhancement, Omang et al. (2019).

Clay can be found in various state of the nation such as Niger, Kogi, Ekiti, Edo, Ondo, Kaduna, Plateau, Adamawa, Delta, Ogun and Oyo State.

Therefore this research tends to determine the potential uses as a function of the mineralogy and the chemistry, in Pandogari area, North-central, Nigeria.

1.4       Statement of the Research Problem

Akintola et al. (2017) studied the geochemistry and origin of talc in Kagara in the adjoining  studied  area  and  suggested  that  the  talcose  rock  was  derived  from  an ultramafic protolith which has undergone moderate degree of metamorphism.

Amoka et al. (2015) also studied chemical and mineralogical properties of Kagara talc deposit in Nigeria and compared it to many existing commercial talc deposits globally, and suggested that it is suitable for several low to medium grade industrial applications.

Ako (2014) mapped the Zungeru amphibolite on a scale of 1:25,000 adjoining the studied area and recognized; massive and weakly foliated varieties, he concluded that the amphibole is of sedimentary origin.

Alabi (2017) studied the clay occurrence in the adjoining Bida basin and discovered that the clay occurrences in Nami, Shegba, Kutigi, Batati and Sakpe of which their Kaolinite content ranges from 42% to 66.2% can be considered for some industrial applications.

Most work carried out in and around the study area focus more on talc, petrology and geochemistry of rocks and clays within Bida basin. This study will therefore focus on the potential uses of the clay occurrences in Pandogari and to contribute to clay mineral inventory in Nigeria.

1.5       Justification of the Study

Clay is one of the foremost industrial minerals products in Nigeria and the world at large because of its industrial usage and its uses in almost every aspect of human lives.

Industrial minerals as needed on daily basis, Nigeria’s attention is much on diversification so as not to depend solely on petroleum products, there is need for more research as clay has numerous usage.

Clay can be found in various state of the nation such as Niger, Kogi, Ekiti, Edo, Ondo, Kaduna, Plateau, Adamawa, Delta, Ogun, Oyo state.

The result of this study will add to clay mineral deposit inventory of Nigeria and improve on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Therefore, it is important to undertake this research to understand the development of mineralogy and geochemistry of clay so as to reveal its suitability for various industrial usages and also to contribute to clay mineral inventory in Nigeria.

1.6       Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this research is to unravel the mode of formation, chemistry and mineralogy of clay occurrence around Pandogari area as a function of its suitability for industrial applications.

Objectives

The following objectives are proposed to achieve the aim above;

1.   Map and collection of clay and rock samples in areas where they are exposed in the field.

2.   Produce the geology map of Pandogari area

3.   Prepare  and  study  thin  sections  of  the  representative  fresh  rock  samples collected from the study area.

4.   Determine the mineralogy of the clay using X-Ray Diffraction spectrometry.

5.   Determine the elemental composition of clay using X-Ray florescence.

6.   Evaluate the possible industrial applications of clay deposit using mineralogy and chemistry data.

1.7       Scope of the Study

This study intends to evaluate the mineralogy, geochemistry and the potential uses of clay in Pandogari area.

i.      The mineralogical, chemical, and physical properties of clay will be determined.

These characteristics of clay will be used for the clay mineral composition and potential usage of clay in the study area.

ii.      The  various  properties   will  be  used  and  compare  specific  standard  or specification for   industrial applications.

1.8       The Study Area

The studied area is part of Tegina sheet 164NE, Pandogari is located as part of the Tegina sheet which is within the basement complex of Nigeria. The area consists of meta-sedimentary and meta-igneous rocks that have been subjected to the processes of deformation  and  metamorphism.  These  lithologies  have  been  intruded  by the  Pan- African Granitic rocks (Alabi, 2011).

1.8.1 Climate and Vegetation

The climate of the studied area is typical of the Guinea Savannah. The climate has two seasons, including a Rain season and harmattan season. The total mean annual rainfall in the region is about 1300 mm, distributed in April and October, with the highest rainfall in August and September minimum temperature in December and January is about 24 ºC. The average yearly temperature varies between 32 ºC and 33 ºC. The dry season is characterized by the effects of harmattan, the result of northeast trade winds that blow through the Sahara Desert, often with a red dust that lasts from December to January. In the dry season, most of these areas are degraded to rough ground due to the drying of the soil and the burning of shrubs. The vegetation is a variety of shrubs and tall forest plants along the streams.

Two seasons are prevalent in the study area, namely wet season (April to October) and dry season accompanied by the North-East trade wind which originates from the Sahara desert (Harmattan wind) (November to March). The driest month January witnesses little or no  precipitation,  whereas  September is  the wettest  month,  usually witness precipitation of 280mm (Idris-Nda et al., 2017)

Location

The studied area is part of Tegina Sheet 142NE and lies between latitude 10° 21ʹ 00ʺ to 10° 25ʹ 00ʺ N and longitude 6° 23ʹ 00ʺ to 6° 30ʹ 00ʺ E.

Pandogari is part of Rafi local government in Niger State, which is characterized with different developmental activities like roads, clinic and other basic amenities. The area mapped is 14.7km by 12.75km which is 187.43km2.

It is generally accessible from Minna through Zungeru – Tegina, Kagara–Kaduna road; also the area is also accessible from Kaduna through Birnin Gwari– Tegina Road. It is also accessible through Alawa Road. Settlements in the area include Gidan Ajingi, Sabo Gida, Ringa, there are foot path and minor roads that makes the study area accessible.

1.9       Regional Geology and Structural Setting

Alabi (2017) in his work deduced that Volcanic rocks in some areas of the basement rocks of the mapped area are chemically distinctive, suggesting a possible seafloor derivation.  Crustal  thinning  in  the  Western  Province  of  Nigeria  is  associated  with Crustal expansion and continental margin rupture of the craton about 1000 million years ago, which resulted in the formation of graben-like structures and the deposition of mostly clastic sediments and small volcanic rocks over a wide area of Nigeria. About 600 Ma ago, oceanic closure of the craton margins and Crustal thickening in the east led to crustal distortion of upper mantle and lower crust and formation of old granites in Nigeria.

The basement complex is of Precambrian age and consists of a complex of migmatite gneisses, a gneiss belt, and old granites. The geology of Nigeria consists of three main rock types. They include: sedimentary rocks,  young intrusive bodies and basement complexes.

The basement complex of Nigeria consists of three main types of rocks

i.          Older granites (Pan-African granites).

ii.      Schist belts (meta-sedimentary and metavolcanic rocks).

iii.     Metamorphic-gneiss complexes (MGC).

The study area is predominantly N-S trending structures, and the extensive igneous regenerated areas of this basement are attributed to pan-African orogenic events, Van Breeman et al. (1977). The work of Ajibade (1980) and Elueze (1981) defined the lithological framework, deformation and metamorphism in the study area. The Kushaka belt is about 50 km wide which extends from the Minna region to Tsohon Birnin Gwari area in north-western Nigeria (Akintola et al., 2017).

Most of the economic clay deposits in Nigeria are associated with metamorphic rocks of basement complex schist belt, which the clay deposits of Pandogari belong.

The basement complexes have been studied in the northwest, Gusau and Minna sheets in different parts of the country. In the southwest, it has been studied in the Ibadan 2 plate, Lokoja and Akure plates. The three groups of rocks described above are well exhibited in the western half of the country. The schist belts that occur in the western half are used as a basis for dividing the basement into four main parts.

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