ABSTRACT
In recent time, Minna, the Niger State capital has witnessed prolong period of dry season, heat stress and fluctuating pattern of rainfall. Also, Chanchaga Local Government Area of Niger State has been facing serious challenge of portable water supply despite the effort of the government in providing pipe borne water. This study therefore, investigates rainfall and temperature variability and its impact on portable water supply in Chanchaga Local Government area of Niger State. Thirty years meteorological data (1989 -2018) consisting of monthly mean rainfall and air temperature were collected from the archives of the National Aeronautics Space Agency (NASA) for the study. Also, two hundred questionnaires were administered within five selected locations in Chanchaga Local Government Area to generate data related to portable water supply within the study area. This along with information on water production trend collected from the Chanchaga station of Niger state Water Board was analysed in this study. Descriptive statistics such as the mean, standard deviation, coefficient of skewness, coefficient of Kurtosis and coefficient of variation was computed from the climatic data obtained. The result of this study revealed that coefficient of variation of the annual mean rainfall data falls between 88.46% in 1997 and 126.51% in 2015 indicating extremely high rainfall variability over the study area while, air temperature data over the study area shows a slight variation with values between 0.19% in 2015 and 4.39% in 1990. There is a general decreasing trend in rainfall amount recorded in the study area while temperature show a general increasing trend over the last two decades (1999-2018). Moreover, investigation into portable water sources in the study revealed that Borehole, Hand pump, Tap and Hand dug wells are the main water sources in the selected locations. The main sources of drinking water identified are borehole water (35%), tap water (22%), well water (17%) and sachet water  (16%)  while,  the  sources  of  domestic  water  supply identified  are  boreholes (32%), hand dug wells (30%), tap (23%), vendors (7%), hand pump (6%) and water tankers  (2%).  However,  this  show  that  tap  water  supply to  the  study  area  is  not sufficient  as  many people  depend  on  alternative  water  sources  for  drinking  and domestic use. Therefore, there is need for increase in tap water pipe network and water supply to cope with increase in population in Chanchaga local government area of Niger state. Finally, this study clearly shows that there is notable change in portable water supply in the study area over the past decades and the change is partly attributed to climate change and partly to the increase in population of people in the study area. Hence, government need to put in place strategies to mitigate the impact of climate change on water supply system in the study area.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Water availability is crucial to human existence, as water is required for human consumption, agriculture, production in industry, power generation and many other human activities such as cooking, cleaning, recreation and washing. The availability of fresh water in the form of surface water (like stream, lakes, rivers, reservoirs) and ground water in soil layers or rock and natural springs is beneficial to mankind and is one of the determinant of human settlement. Availability of clean and unpolluted water is a basic necessity for sustainable development (Enefiok and Ekong, 2014). Thus, provision of clean water was listed as one of the main targets of the millennium development goals (Carr and Neary, 2006). Changes in the availability of water through droughts, precipitation and depletion of aquifer volumes, have serious consequences for the development of villages and urban communities (Duran-Encalada et al. 2017). Aside, the direct demands people place on fresh water sources, climate change is one of the major challenges militating against availability of portable water supply (McBean and Motiee, 2008). On the global scale, the warming associated with climate change result in the melting of polar ice into the sea. This turns fresh water into sea water, leading to shortage in fresh water supply.
The reality of climate change in the past years has been an issue of great concern to the global community of researchers and various governments across the world. Climate change is said to be one of the crucial environmental issues widely discussed in the last two decades (Singh et al., 2013). The change in climate will remain for a long time; therefore, researchers all over the world are investigating the cause in other to proffer solutions (Obot et al., 2010). The activities of man on earth result into the production of greenhouse gases that cause global warming. Climatic variation is not universal, it occurs in both time and space. Therefore the nature and extent of global, regional and local variations of climate differs. The existing indications of climate change is the increase in global temperature which cause the melting of glaciers/polar ice leading to rise in sea level, shifting of global climate zones and increased heat stress. Also, other manifestation of climate change is the fluctuation in rainfall duration and pattern. This leads to flooding, drought, desertification, poor agricultural yield, lowering of water table, changes in the ranges of disease vectors and occurrence of other extreme weather events (Abaje et al., 2010; Adakayi, 2012).
In numerical terms, record shows that the mean global earth temperature has increased by 0.74 ± 0.18oC during the last one hundred years (IPCC, 2007). However, this value is not fixed for all locations across the world, as the changes differ from one region to the other (IPCC 2007). For instance, the annual temperature average for Ethiopia has reportedly risen by 1.3°C between 1960 and 2006, an average rate of 0.28°C per decade. Also, average annual temperature rise of 1.1 to 3.1°C is expected in Ethiopia by the 2060s, and projected increase of 1.5 to 5.1°C by the 2090s (McSweeney et al., 2007; Fentahun and Gashaw, 2014). In Bangladesh, the annual temperature average has reportedly risen by 0.31oC from 1895 to 1980 (Mehrotra and Mehrotra, 1995), while the average annual maximum temperature has been anticipated to rise by 0.4oC and 0.73oC in the years 2050 and 2100 respectively (Karmaker and Shrestha, 2000). An increase of one to two degrees in mean annual temperature is expected throughout the United States over the coming decades.  Nigeria is not left out in the issue of climate change and climate variability. According to Akinsanola and Ogunjobi (2014), there have been significant increases in air temperature and rainfall in many parts of the country with observed rising and declining trends rainfall and temperature in other parts. A study of the temperature variation across the six ecological zones of Nigeria reveals a rising trend  in  most  of  the  studied  region  (Eludoyin, 2011).  In  2012,  Nigeria  recorded unusually high amount of rainfall in many states across the country. This led to severe flooding which caused loss of many lives and destructions of properties value at several millions  of  naira.  Udoimuk  et  al.  (2014),  noted  that  the  flooding is  a  perennial occurrence in Calabar, South southern region of Nigeria. They further reported that the inconsistence nature of rainfall patterns in the state has so many adverse effects (such as flooding, outbreak of diseases, destruction of farm lands, displacement of residence) on the inhabitants of the state.
Considering the discussion above, it is worth noting that temperature and rainfall variations are vital indicative factors of climate change (Obot et al., 2010; Amadi et al., 2014;  Owolabi,  2016).  The  climate  of  a  locality or  region  is  best  understood  by analysing the temperature and rainfall of the location (Akinsanola and Ogunjobi, 2014). The decreasing rainfall and increasing temperature, with resultant increasing evapotranspiration has serious implication on water availability. The change in rainfall and temperature affects water cycle and cause change in the natural processes of surface runoff, evapotranspiration rates, sediment transport, with attendant effects on water availability. However, with increase understanding of the negative effects of climate change on water resources, an evaluation of portable water supply at local and regional scales is imperative (Kumar et al., 2010). Such assessment requires a critical analysis of rainfall and temperature trends, as well as, its implication on water availability at different geographical locations.
In Nigeria, increasing temperature trends, variation in rainfall patterns and shifting season have been reported by researchers across the country (Eludotin et al., 2009; Ogungbenro and Morakinyo, 2014; Akinsanola and Ogunjobi, 2014). Decline in rainfall amount in Nigeria has been specifically reported by Odjugo (2005, 2009). In a study on water availability in Ikeduru, Imo state Nigeria, Onyenechere et al., (2011) observed that reduction in rainfall amount has adverse effects on water supply to rural community in the study area. Although, many studies on the recent trends in rainfall and temperature have been done across the various locations and climatic zones of Nigeria, there are only few of such studies that focus on water availability. Thus, the focus of this study is to analyse the implication of rainfall and temperature variability on portable water supply in Chanchaga local government area of Minna, Niger State. Water supply is a major social infrastructure that is grossly inadequate in Minna metropolis. Considering the rapid population growth in Minna and the challenge of water supply in the town, as well as, the changing rainfall and temperature patterns in recent times, this study is aimed at analysing the implication of rainfall and temperature variability on portable water supply in Chanchaga local government area of Niger State.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), reported that climate change will affect agriculture and bring about the risk of hunger. It is also causing rapid melting of glaciers and increase water scarcity. Climate change, with reference to variation in rainfall  and  temperature, is  a  global phenomenon.  Hydrological  resources such  as ponds, streams and rivers that are largely dependent on rainfall are negatively affected by climate change and this calls for a serious concern, as it indicates danger on water availability and human society.  Climate change shows overall net negative impact on water bodies and freshwater ecosystems across different regions of the world. Investigation on the impacts of the changing climate on the water resources of Indian rivers systems revealed that freshwater availability in many river basins in India will possibly reduce as a result of climate change (Gosain et al., 2006). According to United Nation report, the present climate change situation will make about half of the world’s populace to live in places of high water stress by 2030. Also, the report indicated that almost 75 million to 250 million people in Africa will be subject to high water stress.
In Nigeria, a good number of people, especially in the rural communities, depends on streams, ponds, rivers and rainfall collection for their water supply. In Northern Nigeria, report indicates that, decrease in rainfall, increase in temperature and high evapotranspiration observed have resulted in complete dry up of some rivers and reduction of water levels in other rivers. For instance, Lake Chad at the northern boundary of Nigeria is observed to be decreasing in size at a rapid rate over the last forty years (Chindo and Nyelong, 2005; Odjugo, 2007).
In the last one decade, Minna, the Niger State capital has witnessed remarkable population growth and expansion in buildings infrastructure due to high influx of people from the neighbouring states. In this regard, Chanchaga Local Government area in Minna has been facing serious challenge of portable water supply despite the effort of the government in providing pipe borne water. Adegbehin et al. (2016), examined the challenge of domestic water supply in Dutsen Kura Gwari area of Chanchaga Local Government through field investigation. The result shows that the supply of pipe borne water in the area is grossly inadequate and most of the hand dug wells dry up in the dry season, leaving the residents with a serious water supply challenge. This problem results
in an individual effort to meet their daily water demand through other water sources such as boreholes, hand dug wells and patronising water vendors (Ishiaku et al., 2014). Also, Minna has been experiencing prolong period of dry season, heat stress and fluctuating pattern of rainfall in recent time. The prolong period of dry season couple with the heat stress experience in Minna make life uncomfortable for people and animals in the town. The high temperature and the associated heat stress results to outbreak of diseases and sometime loss of life. Moreover, the onset of rainfall in Minna has been drifting between April and May while the offset of rainfall has been either September or October. Moreover, the quantity of annual rainfall in Minna is changing almost every year. The unpredictable rainfall pattern in the town is affecting the agricultural production and water cycle. Some researchers have investigated the trends of rainfall and temperature in Minna but, no particular attention has been placed on the impact of these climatology factors on portable water in Chanchaga area of Minna. Adequate knowledge of the effects of climate change especially of rainfall and temperature trends on portable water supply in Chanchaga area is imperative for future water availability in the city. This study is set to address the challenge pose by changing rainfall and temperature on the present and future portable water supply in Chanchaga local government area (LGA) of Niger State.
1.3 Research Questions
This study is design to address the following questions:
i.     What is the trend of monthly and annual rainfall and temperature in Chanchaga Local Government Area?
ii.     What is the source(s) of portable water supply and trend of water production in Chanchaga LGA?
iii. What is the implication of rainfall and temperature variability on portable water supply in Chanchaga?
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to investigate rainfall and temperature variability and its impact on portable water supply in Chanchaga Local Government area of Niger State. The objectives of the study are to:
i.     identify the trend of  monthly and annual rainfall and temperature in Chanchaga LGA;
ii.     examine  the  sources  of  portable  water  supply  and  their  capacity  in Chanchaga LGA;
iii. determine the implication of rainfall and temperature variability on portable water supply in Chanchaga LGA.
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study
This work covers only Chanchaga Local Government Area in Niger State. The study examined the climate variations in the study area using temperature and rainfall data of Minna. Monthly mean data of temperature and rainfall for a period of thirty years was used for the study. The temperature and rainfall data recorded in Minna was collected and analysed using statistical data analysis technique to detect the monthly and annual variation in the data. The study examined the sources of portable water supply in the study area and the possible implication of rainfall and temperature variability on them.
1.6 Justification for the Study
The reality of climate change and its resultant challenges on the global population in recent time informed the need to understand the trends of the changing climate, as well as, its implication on portable water supply. In Nigeria, evidence of climate change has been established with rapid changing patterns of rainfall and temperature leading to flooding and other consequences (Adakayi, 2012; Akinsanola and Ogunjobi, 2014). Rainfall and temperature are two common climatic parameters usually analysed for evidence of change in climate. Therefore, it is important to examine the implication of rainfall and temperature trends on portable water supply. This study is particularly important to study area because access to freshwater supply is one of the major social challenges of the residents of the area.
This study helps us to understand rainfall and temperature trends in Chanchaga LGA of Niger state. This information will be useful to farmers in the area in planning there farming activities. It will equally be beneficial to the residents in planning coping strategies, and for government to developed policy for adaptive strategies against the changing climate. Moreover, this study enables us to understand the effects of rainfall and temperature trends on domestic water supply in the study area. This information will be useful in proffering solution to the current and future water supply problems in the area. The work will also serve as a blueprint to the water management board and individual seeking to have privately own water source on how to plan for sustainable water supply. Therefore, this work is imperative to the understanding of climate change and sustainable water supply for both domestic and industrial use in Chanchaga LGA of Niger State. This work will contribute considerably to the well being of the people by helping the government and the people to prepare for adaptive strategies against the changing climate and taking proactive measures for the present and future water supply in the study area.
This material content is developed to serve as a GUIDE for students to conduct academic research
IMPLICATION OF RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE VARIABILITY ON PORTABLE WATER SUPPLY ANALYSIS IN CHANCHAGA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA
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