IMPACT OF ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON WATER QUALITY AND ITS HEALTH IMPLICATIONS IN PARTS OF MINNA METROPOLIS, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This work assessed the impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality and its health implications in parts of Minna Metropolis. The study analyzed physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of water from various sources which include Boreholes, Hand Dug Wells and Water Vendors. The study collected twelve water samples of which the parameters analyzed were pH, Hardness, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Phosphate, Ammonia, Nitrate, Nitrite, Escherichia Coli (E.Coli), Salmonella Typhimurium, Staphylococcus Aureus and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa. The study equally examined the level of residents access to potable water supply in the study area, evaluated the health implications of consuming contaminated water and compared laboratory analyses of water parameters with Nigerian Standards for Drinking  Water Quality (NSDWQ) and World Health Organization(WHO). Water quality parameters were analyzed using standard method. The study used simple summary statistics which include mean, range and percentages. The results were presented in tables and graphs. The results showed that the pH for all the water sampled were within both NSDWQ and WHO range of 6.5-8.5. Hardness ranged from 40-500mg/l in all the twelve water sampled. Seven water samples out of twelve were above the 150mg/l NSDWQ threshold, while five were within the limit. Dissolved oxygen in all the water sampled were below both NSDWQ and WHO threshold of 10mg/l and 5mg/l. Biological oxygen demand of all the water sampled equally fell below both NSDWQ and WHO limit of 6mg/l and ≥6mg/l, respectively. Nitrate concentrations in all the water sampled were below 50mg/l WHO threshold, while Nitrite concentrations in all the water sampled were above the 0.2mg/l Nigerian Industrial Standard threshold. Bacteriological analysis revealed that majority of the water sampled were contaminated by bacteria which include E.coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhimurium. For instance, Ten out of 12 water samples were contaminated by E. coli. Three out of 12 water samples were contaminated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while Nine out of 12 water samples were contaminated by Salmonella typhimurium. Human activities identified as contributors to water contamination include concrete blocks making industries, trading such as selling of water by vendors popularly known as (Mairuwa), refuse dump sites, sewage, sinking of Boreholes near septic tanks. The results equally showed that the residents had reasonable access to domestic water supply. This was however attributed to the proliferations of both private and commercial Boreholes in the study area. The results also showed that there is prevalence of water-borne diseases as revealed by both respondents and hospital records. Hospital records revealed that 344 cases of typhoid, 1294 diarrhea, 1882 dysentery and 25 cases of ringworm were reported and recorded in 2018. Owing to contamination of most of the water sampled by bacteria, it was concluded that most of the water sources are not safe for drinking. It was observed and concluded that anthropogenic activities surrounding the water sources contributed to the contamination of the water sources. The study recommended that existing policies on water quality control should be strengthened in order to safeguard public health; Governments at all levels should be organizing sensitization workshops and public awareness programmes on the importance of consuming safe drinking water.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0          INTRODUCTION

1.1          Background to the Study

The environmental pollution rate attributed to anthropogenic activities has increased tremendously in recent time (Ogaga et al., 2018). These activities are mostly socio-economic in nature. The intensification of anthropogenic activities witnessed in recent time could probably be attributed to human population explosion, which in turn led to the intensification of agricultural activities, industrialization, food production and unplanned urbanization, mostly in developing countries (Adekunle and Eniola, 2008). Several projects are embarked upon for developmental purposes in different parts of the globe; in developing nations, the magnitude of environmental deterioration attributed to anthropogenic activities is enormous (Ogaga et al., 2018). In search for sources of energy such as fuel wood, wildlife and timber, the natural ecosystems are decimated or degraded (Ogaga et al., 2018). Oil exploration, unhygienic practices, water transportation, sand mining, chemicals uses, inorganic fertilizers, processing of foods, indiscriminate disposal of wastes and poor waste management, and emissions from vehicles and machineries, textile, mining, construction, automobile works are other human activities that have effect on water quality (Ogaga et al. 2018).

Water is an essential substance that plays a critical role in sustaining life on Earth. Among the resources bestowed on man by nature, water is undoubtedly the most important and essential resource for the survival of organisms (Ajayi and Akpan, 2012). Despite the fact that other resources such as oil and coal have substitutes, there is no alternative to water (Aremu et al., 2011). The overall wellbeing and continued survival of all human beings relies considerably on quality drinking water (Maitera et al., 2011). Water is essential and indispensable to life on earth; its spatial coverage is approximately, 70% of the globe. Approximately, 70% of human mass is made up of water (Adesuyi et al., 2015). Water is one of the substances needed for life sustenance and has long been suspected of being the medium for the transfer of many diseases afflicting man (Abd-Alla et al., 2011). World Health Organization (WHO), in their 2009 report, reported that approximately 80% of global infectious diseases are attributed to inadequate and unsafe water. United Nations International Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF, 2009) reported that 39% of the world human populations (above 2.6 billion humans) had no improved sanitation while some 884 million persons have no access to adequate water supplies. Consequently, over 3.8 million people, majorly children below age five die every year from pneumonia and diarrheal diseases (WHO, 2009). Nigeria, being one of the developing countries, suffers considerable great deal of water contamination from human activities (Aliyu, 2014).

Different researches have revealed that the Nigerian water sources have experienced contamination from anthropogenic activities like manufacturing, industrial, construction, agricultural, mining and domestic in both rural and urban areas (Aliyu, 2014; Ogaga et al., 2018). The main contaminations affect physicochemical and micro-biological properties. The contaminants include trace elements, heavy metals, nutrients and coliforms. Some heavy metals like nickel, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, constitute significant elements owing to their biological functions; others like cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic are insignificant because they render no biological function (Ogaga et al., 2018). Essential heavy metals become toxic and detrimental to human health when their level of concentration hovers above permissible limits; non-essential metals are highly toxic and detrimental to human wellbeing, even at low concentration level (Ogaga et al., 2018).

Water pollution is a crucial part of environmental pollution owing to the significance of water for living and sustenance. The effect of Water pollution is not limited to humans alone, it also affect animals, plants and micro-organisms through water ingestion by the living organisms (Aliyu, 2014). Furthermore, water has been adjudged as being the source of many man sicknesses such as the devastating outbreak of E .Coli in Canada (Kondro, 2000) and Cryptosporidium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA in 1993. Ground or surface water body’s quality is a function of either natural or anthropogenic causes or both (Abd-Alla et al., 2011). Without man’s influences, quality of water would solely be determined by the disintegration of bedrock minerals, deposition of dust, particles and salt by wind, natural nutrients leaching from soil. Naturally, water contains many dissolved substances and non-dissolved particles in their natural environment (Abd-Alla et al., 2011). Dissolved minerals in water, are significant and constitutes integral parts of quality water considering that they help in maintaining the wellbeing of organisms and organism’s vitality (Stark et al., 2000). The challenges of groundwater quality may occur from natural or as a result of anthropogenic activities. The main issues as regards to groundwater quality relates to much water hardness and the availability of some metals and pathogens, iron, chloride, manganese and coli forms (Purcell, 2003). Surface water on the other hand, is affected by microbiological contamination through anthropogenic activities that produce wastes of humans both in rural and urban areas. Municipal wastewaters, industrial wastewaters as generated by abattoirs in meat packaging, processing of food and beverages when washed into surface water bodies, they become contaminated. These socio-economic activities invariably generate wastes which may contain fecal materials, including pathogens (Aliyu, 2014). The severing of water is often regarded as impairment, contamination, nuisance, pollution or water quality deterioration (Novtony, 2003).

Water pollution is a global problem and challenge facing countries be it affluent or poor, developing or developed countries; rural and civilized areas (Aliyu, 2014). Pollution in rural areas  is  mostly caused  by mining  and  agricultural  activities.  In  urban  areas  however, industries, manufacturing and other activities like power production are responsible for pollution majorly in affluent countries (Aliyu, 2014). Younger (2001) reported that coal and abandoned mines are the second freshwater pollution sources after sewage in Scotland. In developing countries on the other hand, pathogens attributed to indiscriminate disposal of human wastes and unhygienic practices constitutes major sources of water pollution causing waterborne diseases such as amoebic dysentery, dysentery, cholera, aneamia, ringworm, guinea worm, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio (Aliyu, 2014).  In developed countries, there exist policies regulating the discharge of effluents into the courses of water. Those regulations are virtually not existing or inadequately enforced in developing nations, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The common sources of water at the disposal of most local communities in Nigeria are steadily being affected by various human activities, as a result of which pollution constitutes the most dominant and daunting challenge (Ayobahan et al., 2014). The abstraction of water for uses like domestic, agriculture  nand other economic activities can result to degradation in water quality and quantity that affect both aquatic ecosystem and availability of potable water for human uses (United Nations Environment Programs, 2006).

This study assessed the anthropogenic activities impact on water quality and its health implications in parts of Minna Metropolis, Niger State, Nigeria.

1.2        Statement of the Research Problem

It is apparent that numerous researches have been conducted on human activities impact on water quality in Nigeria in recent times Aliyu, (2014); Ogaga et al., (2018); Ayobahan et al. (2014); Enitimi and Sylvester (2017); Ohwo and Abel (2014). Many of these studies have documented the failure of various water supply sources in Nigeria to meet the minimum water quality standards of World Health Organization (WHO) as well as Nigerian Standards for  Drinking  Water  Quality.  Many of  these  studies  linked  the  failure  to  influence  of anthropogenic activities. However, based on the literatures reviewed, little studies were conducted in the study area on human activities impact on water quality. Also based on the literatures reviewed, fewer studies were conducted on the health implications of consuming contaminated water in parts of Minna Metropolis.

Adequate safe water supply, hygienic and sanitized freshwater is a crucial factor in man’s economic development quest. Thus, there exist a need for the conservation of both surface and groundwater quality. Good and safe drinking quality water is important for the physical wellbeing of all people. Sustained water pollution inevitably, results in the degradation of water resources with its attendant consequences such as aquatic habitat destruction, death of fisheries and most importantly, scarcity of water resources which further hampers human socio-economic development. Therefore, this research work assessed the impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality and its health implications in parts of Minna metropolis with a view to contributing to the ways of enhancing water quality in the city and the state at large.

1.3       Research Questions

The fundamental questions that readily come to the researcher’s mind include:

i.        What are the physicochemical and bacteriological properties of water sources in Minna Metropolis?

ii.      What  comparisons  exist  between  the  physicochemical  and  bacteriological properties of water sources in the study area and World Health Organization’s standards?

iii.     What is the level of residents access to potable water supply in Minna Metropolis?

iv.     What are the health implications of consuming unsafe water on the health of the study area’s residents?

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The research’s aim is to assess anthropogenic activities impact on water quality and its health implications in parts of Minna Metropolis. The specific objectives are to:

i.       Analyze the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of different water sources in parts of Minna Metropolis;

ii.      Compare the physicochemical and bacteriological properties of water sources in the study area with World Health Organization (WHO) standards.

iii.     Examine the level of residents access to potable water supply in parts of Minna Metropolis;

iv.     Evaluate the health implications of consuming contaminated water in the study area;

1.5       Justification for the Study

The contributions of water resources to economic development of a nation and social wellbeing of people cannot be overemphasized. Unequivocally, economic and social activities  of modern  man  heavily rely on  adequate quality and  quantity of freshwater supplies. However, the quality of water has come under serious threats from various activities of man as revealed by various researchers which include Aliyu, 2014; Ogaga et al. 2018; Ayobahan et al. 2014 among others. Water pollution constitutes global challenge which affects affluent and poor, rural and civilized environments (Aliyu, 2014).   Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reports showed that in African countries, especially Nigeria, diseases connected to water have been impeding basic human development (FAO, 2007). Furthermore, researches in various regions of Nigeria documented the failure of various water supply sources in meeting the minimum water quality standards of World Health Organization (WHO). The health implication of consuming contaminated water is a crucial and motivating factor in conducting this research.

This study therefore provided empirical evidence on human activities impact on water quality and its health implications in parts of Minna Metropolis, which would assist in guiding policy makers on water resources management, and in making adequate policies that will improve water supply quality in the study area, state and the nation at large.

1.6       Scope and Limitation of the Study

The research work’s scope focused mainly on assessing the impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality in parts of Minna Metropolis. Of specific interest to this research work is the impact of anthropogenic activities (industries, agriculture, domestic, food processing, construction, trading and transportation) on water quality. This study analyzed the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of some water sources in parts of Minna Metropolis, compare the results with World Health Organization, examine the level of resident’s access to potable water supply, and evaluate the health implications of consuming contaminated water.

The study took water samples from 12 sampling locations and only water sources cited within close range of human activities were sampled. The study took water samples from wells, boreholes and water vendors popularly known as Mairuwas in the selected areas. The physicochemical and bacteriological parameters analyzed include dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, biological oxygen demand (BOD), hardness, phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, pseudomonas aeruginosa, staphylococcus aureus, salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia Coli. The spatial coverage of the study focused on Kpakungu, Maitumbi, Tayir and Chanchaga areas, respectively.

Like most research works, this study had its limitation. Data collection constituted some of the challenges faced by the study as the author faced communication challenge with some of the respondents. Suspicion was another challenge faced by the study in that some respondents were not positively disposed to the idea of granting interview.

1.7       The Study Area

1.7.1      Location and extent

The four selected study areas are located in Bosso and Chanchaga Local government Areas (LGA) in Minna, the capital of Niger State, Nigeria. Niger state lies on Longitude 3˚30′ and 7˚20’E, and Latitude 8˚22′ and 11˚30’N. It has a land area of about 6,784km². It is located in the North-Central geo-political zone of Nigeria and it is located about 150km from Abuja and 495km from Lagos. Minna Metropolis lies on lowland and bordered in the East by Paida hill that extended eastwards towards Maitumbi and it supports farming. To the West, it is bordered by Wushishi and Gbako, Shiroro to the North, Paikoro in the East and Katcha in the South (Simon et al., 2018).

1.7.2     Climate

The climate of Minna is tropical with average annual temperature of 27.5ᵒc (Simon et al., 2018). The annual rainfall on average is 1229 mm. The least rainfall amount is recorded in January. The average rainfall in this month is 1mm. The month of September receives the highest amount of precipitation,   with monthly average of 260 mm. The month of March records the highest amount of temperatures. On average, around 30.5ᵒc is recorded (Simon et al., 2018).The coldest month is August, whose average temperature is 25.3⁰c. Minna is found within the tropical hinterland and the tropical continental climate of Nigeria. Thus, Minna and its environs essentially fall in the tropical continental climate as outlined by Koppen’s climatic classification scheme.

1.7.3    Geology

The geological structure of Minna Metropolis shows a steep sloppy hills outcrop on the North and Eastern edges. The entire land area of the city is such that is characterized by undulating topographies and underlain by basement complex granitic and sedimentary rocks. Over the hills in the North, there are lands that are developable but are interspersed with poor land spaces. The southern part presents reasonable and potential development possibilities but is however, curtailed by River Chanchaga (Simon, et al., 2018).

17.4     Vegetation

The vegetation cover of Minna Metropolis consists of open savanna wood and grasslands. It is interspersed with short to medium trees. The height of the trees ranges between 10 to 16 meters.  The  dominant  tree  in  the  city  is  leam  tree.  Others  include  Malayna,  Mango, Mahogany, etc. The bank of River Chanchaga is covered by dense riparian woodlands or vegetation (Simon et al., 2018).

1.7.5    Population

The 1991 population census conducted by the National Population Commission (NPC), put the population figure of Minna Metropolis at 189,188. It rose to 291,900 in 2015. It is estimated at about 500,000 as at 2017. The population is projected with an annual growth rate of 0.85% per year (NPC, 2017).

1.7.6    Socio-economic activities and infrastructure

Minna Metropolis developed as an administrative centre. In recent times however, both economic and social activities have significantly influenced its growth (Simon et al., 2018). The major occupations of the people include farming, trading, brick-making, pottery making and weaving.

In terms of amenities, Minna Metropolis has various financial institutions and credit houses, educational institutions and health facilities. There are television stations and radio houses. It is connected by road to Lagos, Ibadan, and Abuja-Lokoja. There is also a railway linking the city to the core north and southern part of Nigeria (Simon et al., 2018).

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