ABSTRACT
A geoelectric survey was carried out in Badeggi under Katcha Local Government area of Niger State with the aim of evaluating the aquifer protective capacity and soil corrosivity of the overburden units in the study area using vertical electrical sounding method. G41 Resistivity meter was employed to obtain forty VES points within ten profiles, with the interval of 50 m between the profiles.The Schlumberger electrode array was employed to obtain the data which was further modelled using computer iteration (Winresist software). The information obtained from modelling was used toevaluate longitudinal conductance and transmissivities of the layers. The results show generally low resistivities across the survey area and an average longitudinal conductance variation from 0.1171 Siemens to 0.925 Siemens and the average transmissivity values ranges between 91.62 Ωm to 1339.4 Ωm. The field data gives a resolution with 4–5 geoelectriclayers and the observed frequencies in curve types include: 40% of QH, 35% of Q, 17.5% of QHK and 7.5% of QKH. Classifying the longitudinal unit conductance (S)andthe protective capacities of the study area as 20% weak, 0% poor, 72.5% moderate, and 7.5% as good,the corrosivity ratings of the study area showsthat 42.5% is slightly corrosive and 57.5% is practically non-corrosive. The results reasonably provide information on areas where any form of agricultural and industries activities can be in order to safeguard the hydrological setting sited for laid and iron pipes for resident’s safety within the study area.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
The growth of any community is hinged on the availability of basic amenities such as water, good road network and electricity. The search for sustainable, clean and portable water is a struggle that will never end as it aids in the growth of any community (Salako at al., 2009).Water is a gift of nature and it is in a bounteous proportion, noticeable by its presence (surface, rain, and underground), with a quality of transformation through recurrent hydrological evaporation, condensation, and precipitation (Abdullahi et al., 2017). NigerStatein northcentralNigeriaexperiences an annual rainfallwhich ranges from 1200 mm to 1600 mm from the southern part of the state to the northernregion.The duration of the rainy seasonranges from 120 to 150 days or more from the north to the south (baimba, 1978).
Water resources are one of the most important materials in community development. Understanding the hydrogeological and hydro-chemical characteristics of an area is crucial for groundwater planning and development. Groundwater had immensely become important water supply in urban and rural areas in both developed and developing nations for domestic, industrial and agricultural purpose (Durowayeet al., 2014). Portable and safe drinking water is a necessary requirement for the health and productive life of humans in any society. Ground water is a valuable source of portable drinking water in most of our urban and rural communities, and for industrial and agricultural applications. However, maintaining a portable ground water supply that is free from microbial and chemical contaminants is far from reality in most of our urban centers, due to poor waste disposal and management practices (Chernicoff and Whitney, 2009).
Groundwater is that water found within the saturated voids beneath the ground. The source of groundwater is chiefly from precipitating atmospheric moisture which has percolated down into the soil and subsoil layers. The availability, quantity, and exploitability of groundwater depend on the porosity and permeability of the host rocks (Obiora et al., 2015). Both parameters play important roles in ground water movement and recovery. The porosity of a geologic material is the amount of water (fluid) the material can hold (Abdullahi et al., 2017). It is the volume ratio of the pore spaces to the total volume of soil, rock or sediment (Obiora et al., 2017).
Groundwater as the main source of potable water supply for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses has been under intense pressure of degradation and contamination due to urbanisation, industrial and agricultural related activities (Belmonte et al., 2004). However, the present social demands are notonly to detect new groundwater resources but to protect them. The potability of groundwater can be contaminated by leachate from dumpsites, salt intrusion, oil spillage, mining activities, sewage (from latrines, underlined petroleum pipes and septic tanks) (Makeig,1982). Dumpsites and latrines are sited without considering the hydrogeological settings of the area, thereby rendering the future of groundwater at risk (Ugbaja and Edet,2004). The widespread use of chemical products, coupled with the disposal of large volumes of waste materials, poses the potential for widely distributed groundwater contamination. Hazardous chemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides, and solvents, are used ubiquitously in everyday life. These and a host of other chemicals are in widespread use in urban, industrial, and agricultural settings. Whether intentionally disposed of accidentally spilled, or applied to the ground for agricultural reasons, some of these chemicals can eventually reach the groundwater and contaminate it. Because of the volumes of toxic wastes and because of their stability in groundwater, such contamination can pose a serious threat to public health. Almost every major industrial and agricultural site has in the past disposed of its wastes on site, often in an inconspicuous location on the property. Every municipality has had to dispose of its waste at selectedlocations within its proximity. Past waste- disposalpractices and dealing with spills have not always been considered as potential for groundwater contamination.
The rate of groundwater contamination depends on permeability, porosity, and overburden thickness of geologic formations. When the underlying geologic material is unconsolidated and uncompacted, such as coarse sand, the polluting influent are capable of escaping into the subsurface to contaminate groundwater, rendering the soil corrosive and forming a polluting plume that extends hundreds of meters (Keswick et al.,1982). Using electrical resistivity method and borehole lithologic logs,(Dan-Hassan 2001) found out that the aquifers of the basement complex rocks of north–central Nigeria are predominantly weathered overburden aquifers.
Corrosion is the degradation of a substance or its properties due to a reaction with the environment (Ahmad et al., 2016). It exists in virtually all surface and subsurface materials. However, it is most often associated with metals. Soil corrosion is a natural or artificial occurring process where the soil structure is oxidised or reduced to a corrosion product such as “contaminated soil” by chemical or electrochemical reaction with the environment (Revie and Uhlig, 2008).
Generally, corrosive soils contain large concentrations of soluble salts, especially in the form of sulphates, chlorides and bicarbonates and may thus be characterised by high acidity (low pH) or high alkalinity (high pH) (Ahmad et al., 2016). Soils with high clay and silt contents are usually characterised by fine texture, high water-holding capacity and consequently, are usually poorly aerated and drained (Bullard et al., 2004). Thus, they are also prone to be potentially more corrosion than coarse-textured soils like sands and gravels where there is greater circulation of air (Bullard etal., 2004). Some recent researchers had employed electrical resistivity method in investigating aquifer protective capacity and soil corrosivity in Nigeria (Adeniji et al., 2014). Corrosive soils contain chemical constituents that can react with construction materials, such as concrete and ferrous metals, which may damage foundations and buried pipelines(George et al., 2014). The electrochemical corrosion processes that take place on metal surfaces in soils occur in the groundwater that is in contact with the corroding structure (Murainaet al., 2012).
Today, we are witnessing an increasing number of boreholes drilled by government, non-governmental organisations, and individuals. This shows clearly that groundwater effectively complementing other sources of water supply in the badeggi. This is due to the rate of contamination of rivers, lakes and stream that is not save. Surface water is found to be grossly degraded in quality because of its physical, biological, or chemical contaminants (Edet and Worden, 2009).
The demand for water in town has been on the increase due to the growing demand in the commodity for domestic and agricultural uses. Managing existing water supplies to fully satisfy all uses has proven difficult, particularly in dry season. Groundwater is therefore, the likely source that can ameliorate the problem and hence the need to find genuine and effective way of harnessing it.Despite this seemingly important relief, there could be threats of contamination to groundwater occasioned by soil corrosivity and infiltration of contaminants from the surface through the migration paths into the aquifers. It is in trying to monitor the quality of groundwater that we used the VES method to decipher the structure layering of the subsurface in BadeggiunderKatcha local government area with a view to finding the depth to water bearing formations.
1.2 Statement of the Research
Badeggi village forms part of the Bida basin. As a sedimentary area, the potential of aquifer bearing formation is high. However, the growing demand for portable drinking water for domestic use is threatened by agrarian activities, with increasing application of organic and synthetic fertilizers as the years go by. Hence, investigating the soil corrosivity level and aquifer protective capacity will be of great help to the environment for safe drinking water and any other forms of activities.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study is to evaluate aquifer protective capacity and soil corrosivity using VES method to decipher the structure layering of the earth inBadeggi with a view to finding the depth to water bearing formation. The objectives are to:
i. determine the geo-electrical and hydrological characteristics of the aquifer present in the study area
ii. evaluate soil corrosivity level
iii. evaluate longitudinal conductance and determine aquifer protective capacity
1.4 Justification of the Study
The study was carried out to enhance safe and healthy approach of prospecting for portable drinking water to future settlers, by determining the soil corrosivity level and aquifer protective capacity within the study area and provide background geophysical information for prospective researchers.
1.5 Climate
The area experiences two distinct seasons: the dry and wet seasons. The annual rainfall varies from about 1,600mm in the south to 1,200mm in the north. The duration of the rainy season ranges from 150 to 210 days or more from the north to the south Mean maximum
temperature remains high throughout the year, hovering about 32°C, particularly in March and June. The lowest minimum temperatures occur usually between December and January when most parts of the area come under the influence of the tropical continental and dry season in Badeggi commences in October.
1.6 Location of the Study Area
The study area is situated withinBadeggi along Agaie-Suleja road.It is located between latitude 9⁰3′28.039″to 9⁰2′47.5″ and longitude 6⁰8′14.245″ to 6⁰8′10.7″with land space extent of 20 km2. The areal distance estimate is about 5 km from National Cereal ResearchInstitute, Badeggi of which the site is about 3 km from Government Day Secondary School Badeggi and it is spanned by a well accessible road either by foot or by vehicle. The area has a gentle topography that is covered with vegetation, trees, farms land and grasses (Figure 1.1).
This material content is developed to serve as a GUIDE for students to conduct academic research
EVALUATION OF AQUIFER PROTECTIVE CAPACITY AND SOIL CORROSIVITY USING VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING METHOD IN BADEGGI VILLAGE, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA
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