AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE INFRASTRUCTURE, RICE CROPPING INTENSITY AND LAND USE DYNAMICS IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The possible results of infrastructure, rice copping intensity and land use dynamics in areas of Benue State are not known as to equip policy makers in government in their pursuance of land resource utilization towards increased rice production intensity. The broad objective of this study was to investigate the infrastructure, rice cropping intensity and land use dynamics in Benue State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are to: (i) describe the socio economic characteristics of farming families in the area, (ii) identify land use pattern of rice farmers relative to their socio economic characteristics, (iii) identify and describe rural infrastructure and new technologies available to farmers, (iv) describe the effects of infrastructure on rice cropping intensity, and (v) determine the effects of adoption of new technology on rice land use intensity. The study adopted survey design. Makurdi, Guma, and Gwer were selected from the 23 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Benue State based on their geographical advantage of the River Benue flood basin to rice production and proximity to marketing infrastructure and other available infrastructures in the state as well as their productivity level. Nine villages, 3 from each LGA were selected Thirteen rice farmers were randomly selected within the nine surveyed areas making a total of 117 respondents. Primary data were collected for the study that made use of panel data from 2009 to 2014 based on the experience of the farmers.. The data were generated by a team of well trained enumerators consisting of village extension agents of the BNARDA, EGAS ventures and local government councils in the study area under the supervision of the researcher using structured and pretested questionnaire covering the farmers’ demographic/socio economic characteristics, land holding and biophysical characteristics, rice production, marketing and land use, agricultural technology, practices and inputs, water management infrastructure market accessibility  and  travel  distances.  Both  descriptive  and  relevant  inferential  statistics  such  as frequency, percentages, means and multiple regression analysis were used for data analyses. Socio- economic characteristics of farming families, biophysical characteristics of the area, land use pattern of rice farmers, rural infrastructure and new technologies available to the farmers constitute the descriptive features of the study, while the effects of infrastructure on rice cropping intensity and the effects of the adoption of new technologies on rice land use intensity constitute the explanatory variables of the multiple regression analytical model.  Improved access to extension services, modern varieties and use of tractor significantly influence rice cropping intensity and its production. The number  of plots  distributed  among  land  characteristics  suitable  for  rice  production  is  positively significant to land use intensity. Time taken to farm as an accessibility indicator is a reflection of transportation infrastructure Synergy among rice farmers in terms of co operative societies is essential to bridge the extension gap between Government and the farmers. Surveys and land development relative to rice production is essential to increase number of plots suitable for rice production and rice land use intensity. Development of irrigation system through dams and governments effort in subsidizing inputs like fertilizers and tractors is also vital to the cropping intensity in the area.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Both technology, bio-physical and socio-economic constraints influence land use decisions and limit importance of rural infrastructure to promote growth. Despite high economic rates of return to investments in rural infrastructure, and significant deficiencies of rural infrastructure, neither national governments nor international aid agencies seem to prioritize investments in the construction of new infrastructure and maintenance of existing infrastructure.  Much of the required investment is of a Public goods nature and thus most of the  infrastructure  investments  must  come  from  public  sources,  while  public-private partnership should be pursued when appropriate. Failure to accelerate investments in rural infrastructure   will   severely   limit   opportunities   to   benefit   from   trade   liberalization, international capital markets, and other potential benefits offered by globalization (Pinstrup- Anderson and Shimokawa, 2006)

Deficiencies in transportation, energy, telecommunication, and related infrastructure translate into poorly functioning domestic markets with little spatial and temporal integration, low price transmission,  and  weak  international  competitiveness  Infrastructure development  is essential for economic growth, rural development, and poverty alleviation. Productivity increase in agriculture is an effective driver of economic growth both within and outside agricultural sectors. Such productivity increase depends on good rural infrastructure, well functioning domestic markets, appropriate institutions, and access to appropriate technology (Pinstrup-Anderson and Shimokawa, 2006).

Market integration is limited by poor transport, storage and communication infrastructure. To create the enabling environment for a well-functioning capital market in rural areas, public investment in infrastructure is needed. Infrastructure improvements tend to attract private financial institutions to rural areas. Improved rural infrastructure also encourages marketing agents to extend credit to farmers at reasonable interest rates, because of lower risks. A large share of subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture has been transformed through the adoption of new technology, investments in rural infrastructure and markets, and the design and implementation of appropriate policies. This transformation leads to an increase in productivity of land and labour (Pinstrup-Anderson and Shimokawa, 2006). The level of both physical and institutional infrastructure significantly influences the spread of proven and demonstrated yield enhancing agricultural technology.

Nigeria by virtue of its prominent position as the most populous nation in the region of Africa, is in no way facing lesser challenges as regards reducing the countries dependence on food import through improvement in food self sufficiency ratio which is in turn pivoted on increased domestic food production. However, previous increase in food production has been attributed mainly to expansion in cultivated land areas (areas cultivated to food crop) rather than productivity of the arable lands. The inherent limitation of this approach is however evident in the decline in Nigerian agricultural land area by 15.4% (FAO, 2000 estimate) attributable to land alienation, degradation and loss of about 351 000 hectares annually to desertification (Brown, 2005; Bamire and Manyong, 2003) also attributed the decline to population growth and the consequent pressures from competing demands for land over times; which have resulted in cultivable land being withdrawn from its traditional agricultural uses, reduction in land-man ratio and average size of farmland.   In addition, reports of shortened fallow period (Adelana and Ojo-Atere, 1997; Aromolaran, 1998, Agbonlahor et al, 2003, Bamire, 2003, Oyekale, 2007) pervade literature on the dynamics of the Nigerian farming systems thereby underscoring increase in land-use intensity through continuous or intensive cropping. Although, literature on intensification (Boserup, 1981; Buckles and Erenstein, 1996, Erbaugh, 1999) have affirmed the potential of achieving agricultural growth through intensification, commensurate use of modern inputs were identified as fundamental condition for sustainable growth through increased land-use intensity. In the absence of this, increased land-use intensity could lead to continuous depletion of soil fertility, decline in productivity, loss of soil structure, soil erosion and land degradation (Sivanappan, 1995; Upton, 1996 and Cassman, 1999, Erbaugh, 1999). Estimates from FAO have however shown tremendous decline in the use intensity of these modern inputs (notably fertilizer and tractor) especially among the peasant farmers that dominate Nigerian agriculture. This undoubtedly creates a divergence between the need to seek food growth through intensification and the condition for sustainable growth in the country. This divergence is rather indicative of the challenges in the possible quest for increased production through increase land-use intensity. Nigeria covers an area of 98.3million ha with a population of about 150 million, largely rural and comprising more than 350 ethnic nationalities.  The country measures about 1,200 km from east to west and about 1,050 km from north to south, and is bounded by Cameroon to the east, Chad to the northeast, Niger to the north, Benin to the west, and the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It is the most populous country in Africa with less than 10% of total land is under constituted forest reserve while undisturbed forest covers only 1.3%. The water resources consist of large bodies of surface water (268 Billion cubic meters), underground water (58 Billion cubic meters) and an extensive coastline, coupled with rainfall is in the range of 300-4000 mm pa. These features imply that the country is endowed with vast physical and human resources required for accelerated development,  (Ayoola, 2009). Nigeria, blessed as it is, with abundant agro-ecological resources and diversity has become one of the largest food importers in sub-Saharan Africa (Idachaba, 2009). Nigeria relies heavily on par-boiled rice from Thailand with accompanying balance of trade deficit (Ojo and Adebayo, 2012)

Nigeria rice subsector is capable of contributing about $9bilion to the countries domestic product (GDP), (Oriza, 2014). With huge rivers, low lands and fertile deltas, Nigeria has limitless opportunity to impact the world with excellent quality rice if current initiatives and policy consistency are maintained (Ugwu, 2014).

Rice is grown in every region in Nigeria including the semi-dry savannah of the Middle Belt and the north. Cultivation is largely by small-holder farmers. This is an enterprise, often frustrated by infrastructural challenges, weak capital base and unskilled labour.  (Adesinya, 2014).

The relative new large mills coming on stream are barely scratching the surface of demand with a total combined capacity of 800,000 tonnes per year. Their product quality and presentation are good/comparable with imports but uncompetitive in price because of higher local production costs and infrastructural handicaps (Adesinya, 2014). Cluster strategy would be the best way to provide vital infrastructure, needed by Processors. ( Ugwuh,  2014).

With average per capita consumption of 40kg per year, translating to a national consumption volume of five to six million tons per year, the demand and price trend follows the lead of the imported long-grain rice sourced from India and Thailand by rice merchants. Total import volumes oscillate from 1.7 million tons to 3.2 million tons, depending on the tariff structure, volume  of  local  production  and  the  prevailing  local  circumstances,  weather  and  other vagaries in the rice value chain (Adesinya, 2014).

Essentially, Nigeria needs to import a short fall of a maximum of two million tons finished rice per year – currently sourced from India and Thailand 80 /20 per cent; at a price of $450 and $600 per ton FOB respectively. It is absolutely critical that government manages the tariff regime to ensure product availability, fair/stable consumer prices and protection of local producers/processors that are rendered cost-uncompetitive by environmental factors and infrastructural handicaps (Adesinya, 2014).

Households’ land-use choices highly depend on access to infrastructure and markets. Infrastructure networks and market integration determine households’ production decisions. This  is  because  they  influence  economic  structures  beyond  agriculture,  i.e.,  income- generation opportunities in non-agricultural sectors with possible repercussions on land-use change. Hence, on a gradient of  market integration, the production costs of agricultural commodities, the marketing networks, and the opportunity costs of engaging in agriculture differ and so will households’ land uses. The interrelation between developing markets and infrastructure extension is twofold: First, infrastructure can be triggered by developing markets, cash crop adoption and economic growth—possibly reinforced by spontaneous in- migration. Secondly, infrastructure extension can be a component of rural development and settlement policies and exogenously drive market integration. In reality, this process will often be interactive and better access to markets is found to be positively correlated with the extension of agricultural areas, especially for cash crop cultivation (Hans P Binswanger- Mkhize 2014).

Benue lies in the Southern Guinea Savannah and on the Lower Benue River Basin and is characterized by extensive Low lands suitable for rice production. Crops like maize, guinea corn, millet, beans, soy beans, cassava, yams and tree crops like orange and palm trees are grown  in  the  area.  Rice  farming  is  dominated  by  subsistence  farmers  characterise  by shortened fallow period, low input use and ownership of 1 to 2 ha cultivated rice crop and mostly rain fed owe to limited irrigation infrastructure. But use of chemicals especially herbicide has contributed to the land use dynamics. Uniquely, most of the crops that is grown in the Far North and South grow in Benue State. Because of increasing demands for paddy rice over time and in the last 5 – 6 years, most of the lowlands especially the Fadamas/Wetlands used and unused were continually being turned into rice farming. This explains the dynamics which hitherto underscore the basis of this work.

1.2 Statement of the problem

The major challenges and difficulties facing the rice value chain are limited irrigation facilities,  lack  of basic mechanization, and  seasonal  availability of paddy  (Adesinya, 2014). According to Ayoola, 2012, the state of rural infrastructure is poor thereby posing a major constraint to general economic development, particularly agricultural economy. He further stated that the poor state of infrastructure puts a low ceiling on farm output, marketable surplus and volume of consumption of agricultural products possible. This affects  the  critical  elements  of  the  agricultural  value  chain  such  as  storage  and processing which results in low value addition in the sector. Further it implies that the cost of farm investments are higher than it generally should be, which lead to high prices of products that make agricultural commodities uncompetitive in local and international markets.  Complete reliance on rain for cultivation and primitive planting methods result in  single  cropping  per  year  by  farmers,  low  paddy  yield  per  hectare,  and  sporadic supplies  to  rice  mills  following  lack  of  irrigation  facilities.  (Adesina,  2010).  The foregoing constraints analysis has practical implications for inputs and outputs of agriculture  and  translates  into  specific  challenges  of  the  different  sub -sectors  as highlighted below.

Crop Lands are of small units, no collateral value, prone to degradation. Soil has declining nutrient status and to prone environmental denudation. There is Low input and output supply because of limited infrastructure between the input and the output markets. Level of mechanization  is  traditional  (cutlass  and  hoe  type);  few  tractors  (only  30,000  tractors available all over the country); processing rudimentary/inefficient; post harvest losses high; each state of the federation has a Tractor Hiring Unit , which usually has low capacity or rendering the full range of mechanization services to farmers (Ayoola, 2009) The level of both physical and institutional infrastructure significantly influences the spread of proven and demonstrated yield enhancing agricultural technology. Land-use decisions are determined by the respective agricultural technology available for and adopted by households.   (Hans P Binswanger Mkhize 2014)

The main issues involved in selected infrastructures are identified as follows:

Low rural roads density; rail and water transportation virtually non-existent); Information and communication infrastructure has the age old rural telephony project given way for the rapid expansion of the modern telecom industry known as GSM. Yet the agricultural population is least impacted based on high prices of the services and low penetration of the rural areas at the moment. The radio remains the most available source of information in rural Nigeria while the television and print media remains largely an urban consumer items.  The local markets lack the required facilities for holding produce in standards. In this regard also the network of farm input markets established by ADPs were not functional (Ayoola, 2012). Insufficient  infrastructure  is  one  of  the  key  bottlenecks  for  successful  utilization  of agricultural R&T because it limits farmers’ options and agricultural output. Where the rural infrastructure provides a facilitating environment R&T are usually high.

Inadequate water use and supply; low irrigation capacity with less than 10% of irrigable land under irrigation despite the presence of eleven River Basin Development Authorities in the country which have the responsibility for tapping the huge water bodies for irrigation and other services; moreover the rural borehole supply programme of the ADPs had been discontinued for a long time. (Ayoola,  2012).  Benue State has one of the two major rivers in Nigeria and with one of the eleven River Basin Development Authorities is yet to fully exploit the irrigation potential and rely mostly on single cropping per year. This limits land use to one cropping season per year/low cropping intensity.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study is to carry out the particular study of the effects of infrastructure on land use dynamic and rice cropping intensity in Benue State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are to;

i.      describe the bio-physical and the socio-economic characteristics of farming families in the area;

ii.       estimate the land use pattern of rice farmers;

iii.      identify rural infrastructure and new technologies available to the farmers;

iv.       determine the effects of infrastructure on rice cropping intensity;

v.       determine the effects of adoption of new technologies on rice land use intensity; and

vi.      highlight and recommend policy implications based on the findings.

1.4 Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis were tested

HO1: Rural infrastructure does not significantly influence rice cropping intensity

HO2: Adoption of new technologies has no significant influence on rice land use intensity

1.5 Justification of the Study

Roads, electricity supplies, telecommunications, and other infrastructure services are limited in  all  rural  areas.  They  are  of  key  importance  to  stimulate  agricultural  investment  and growth” (FAO, 1996). Better communications are a key requirement for agricultural investment and growth. They reduce transportation cost, increase competition, reduce marketing  margins,  and  in  this  way  can  directly  improve  farm  incomes  and  private investment opportunities” (ibid).   These conclusions are supported by several studies of infrastructure in developing countries (e.g., Fan, Hazell, and Thorat, 2000; Mundlak, Larson, and Butzer, 2002; Fan, Zhang, and Zhang, 2002; Fan, Zhang and Zang 2004). These studies demonstrate that investment in infrastructure is essential to increase/improve farmers’ access

to input and output markets, to stimulate the rural non-farm economy and vitalize rural towns, to increase consumer demand in rural areas, and to facilitate the integration of less-favored rural areas into national and international economies. This work will guide the government on the choice of vital infrastructures needed for intensification of land use and rice production in the area.

Agricultural infrastructure has the potential to transform the existing traditional agriculture or subsistence farming into a most modern, commercial and dynamic farming system. (Amrid Patel 2014). The level of both physical and institutional infrastructure significantly influences the spread of proven and demonstrated yield enhancing agricultural technology. The spread of   technology   in   agriculture   depends   critically   on   both   physical   and   institutional infrastructure. Rural infrastructure leads to agricultural expansion by increasing yields, farmers’ access to markets and availability of institutional finance. Irrigation infrastructure increases the land use and cropping intensity, and provides incentives to farmers to use yield enhancing   inputs   and   thus   results   in   higher   agricultural   output   [Dhawan,   Shah, Vaidyanathan]. Rural electrification increases the energizing of pump sets, which helps to increase the irrigated area using groundwater and the output of crops cultivated under- groundwater irrigation is always higher than those under canal or tank irrigation, because of its better reliability and controllability (Amid Patel 2014)

Intensification is associated with increases in yields, which is faster where new technology or irrigation is introduced. Intensification could lead to involution and the diminution of economic and social well-being. Specifically, typically observe are more intensive production patterns in more land constrained countries. Cattle/oxen, fertilizers, cropping intensity and yields all appear to increase with land constraints, but irrigation, mechanization and other forms of capital appear low and fairly unresponsive to land pressures in the vast majority of African countries.  (Hans P Binswanger-Mkhize 2014)

Construction of rural roads almost inevitably leads to increases in agricultural production and productivity by bringing in new land into cultivation or by intensifying existing land use to take advantage of expanded market opportunities. (IFAD, 1995).

These effects of infrastructure accentuate the process of commercialisation in agriculture and rural  sector  (Jaffee  and  Morton,  1995).  It  has  been  observed  that  there  was  a  direct relationship between increase in acreage of export crop cultivation and the standard of roads and distance from the main commercial centres.(Rostow 1964).

Improved irrigation facilities, coupled with research input enhanced agricultural productivity. The  other  infrastructure  facilities  like  access  to  fertilizer  sale  points,  markets,  credit, extension services, also developed with the development of transport infrastructure (Thorat and Sirohi, 2002).

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