OCCUPATIONAL DIVERSIFICATION AMONG RURAL WOMEN IN ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The  survey  was  undertaken  to  examine  occupational  diversification  among  rural women  in  Anambra  State,  Nigeria.  Specifically,   the  study  identified  various  areas   of occupational   diversification   among  rural  women;   ascertained   reasons   for   occupational diversification; ascertained modes of occupational entry for each occupational area; ascertained the  influence  of  human  capital  attributes  on  occupational  diversification;  and  identified problems  faced  by  rural  women  in  occupational  diversification.  Three  hypotheses  were proposed  and  tested,  namely;  there  is no  significant  relationship  between  socio-economic factors  and  occupational   diversification   among  rural  women;   there  are  no  significant differences between farm income and non-farm income of rural women; there is no significant relationship between occupational diversification and nearness to urban markets. The survey was carried out in Anambra State, Nigeria. The population of the study comprised rural women in the four agricultural zones. All the four agricultural zones were used for the study.  Two blocks were selected from each of the zones, while three (3) circles were selected from each of the blocks using simple random sampling. In each of the circles, 20 rural women were selected using simple random sampling. Eight (8) blocks and 24 circles, comprising 480 respondents were  used  for  the  study.  Interview  schedule/questionnaire  was  used  for  data  collection. Eighteen copies of the questionnaire were not filled properly and were dropped leaving 462 for analysis. Data were analysed using percentage, mean score, standard deviation, factor analysis, students’t-test, correlation and multiple linear regression analysis. The findings revealed that majority of respondents (88.7%) were involved in both farm and non-farm occupations such as planting of crops, raising of farm animals, processing of farm produce, petty trading, tailoring, among  others.   The   major  reasons   for  occupational   diversification   were  grouped   into infrastructural, production, marketing and socio-economic factors. The study further revealed that the respondents were constrained by labour, institutional, technical and social problems. Despite the fact that non-farm activities yield high returns, farming still remains the primary occupation  of  the  respondents.  The  study  recommends  that  government  at  both  state  and federal  level  should  improve  the  efficiency  and  performance   of  the  rural   women  in occupational  diversification  by  ensuring  that  adequate  rural  infrastructure  such  as  roads, electricity and pipe-borne water are put in place and highlights the need to establish vocational skill acquisition centres in rural areas in order to empower women with necessary skills to be gainfully employed in non-farm occupations for higher returns.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

Rural households diversify income sources by combining two or more jobs (multiple job holding) to enhance consumption,  smoothen and acquire other basic needs  (Oluwatayo, 2009). Rural women need to diversify their occupation since farming is rain-fed and therefore, seasonal.  This  is  to  enable  them  acquire  additional  income  and  meet  up  with  economic responsibilities during off-season periods.

Rural areas where these women reside are dominated by the following characteristics: geographical isolation, low quality physical infrastructure, low human capital, underdeveloped markets,   scarcity  of  resources   or  incidence   of  some  natural   disaster  (Ranjan,   2006). Occupational  diversification  becomes  pertinent  in order for  rural women  to cope with the aforementioned   characteristics.   Occupational   diversification   according   to   Lanjouw   and Lanjouw (2001) involves incorporating all economic activities in rural areas, except crop and livestock production, fishing and hunting. Tacoli (2004) defines occupational diversification as non-farm  income  generating  activities  undertaken  by rural residents  and farming  by urban residents.   Saith  (2002)   also  defines  occupational   diversification   in  rural  areas  as  the reallocation  and  recombination  of all economic  activities  which  display  sufficiently  strong rural  linkages,  irrespective  of  whether  they  are  located  in  designated  rural  areas  or  not. According  to  Mukhopadhyay  and  Lim  (2005),  occupational  diversification  comprises  two types, namely: those ventures that are administered on an approximately steady basis with an objective of generating surplus and registering growth, hiring labour and with a certain degree of technical sophistication;  and   products or activities which are usually  seasonal, managed exclusively with the help of unpaid family labour, relying on primal technology and catering mostly to the local market characterized primarily by petty production. From these definitions by different authors, occupational  diversification  in this context is defined as all  economic activities, which involve farm and non-farm activities in rural areas.

The individualisation  of economic activity and the increasing tendency to engage  in non-  agricultural  income  earning  have  had  a  dissolving  effect  on  long-standing  agrarian divisions of labour as well as economic rights and responsibilities within peasant households. Pooling of income within the domestic unit is weakening as categories of people who formerly were  not  expected  to  earn  income  now  simultaneously  receive  less  from  male  heads  of household, and assert a right to determine how their own income is spent (Bryceson, 2006). Conversely   households   are   often   pursuing   several   different   non-agricultural   activities simultaneously  or at different  points throughout  the  year. Most of the activities are highly opportunistic  in nature, involving quick  responses to market demand and supply. However, changing labour force participation  patterns are also readily apparent. More and more rural women are entering non-agricultural production and the male household head’s dominant role as family cash-earner is eroding. Rural women are also earning cash, but largely based on their home-making skills and   generally less remunerative compared with men. Sales of prepared snacks, beer, hair plaiting, petty retailing, knitting, tailoring, soap making, midwifery are a few of the many services that they now engage in (Ellis, 1998).

Rural  women  are  more  likely  to  be  self-employed  than  their  urban  counterparts. Fourteen percent of women in rural and small town areas of sub-Saharan Africa were engaged in non-farm self-employment as compared to 11% of women in urban areas in 2001 (Leech, 2008). However, there has been a parallel increase in rural women’s income over the years. In the  fifties,  it was  estimated  that  women  averaged  a contribution  of about  20%  to  family earnings. In the nineties, their income was estimated to account for at least 40% of total family income (International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 1995).  Usually, women’s income  tends  to rise  after  about  age  30.  Before  then  their  child-care  and  other  domestic responsibilities  prevent them from making greater contributions.  Women also carry out  the bulk of the work in off-farm occupations. Majority of them are involved in establishing small- scale industries for processing of agro-products (IFAD, 1995).

Thus, the growing importance  of non-agricultural  activities of rural women is  often hardly recognized in notions of status and propriety upheld by the community and  in some places, this disjuncture between economic reality and social status serves as a wedge between the generations. These changes have impacted differently across study areas in Anambra State, in reality, non-agricultural  activities of rural women are  economically  dominant (Bryceson, 2000).

1.2 Problem statement

Occupational diversification among rural women is an increasingly important reality in Nigeria, especially in Anambra State where there is low level of development as a result of structural   transformation   and   high   population   density.   Recent   trends   in   agricultural modernization have failed to improve the welfare of rural women. Advances in technology and labour market imperfections have accentuated the concentration of rural women in non-farm activities  in rural sector.  This has led to  de-agrarianisation.  De-agrarianisation  offers rural women  an  opportunity  for  occupational  adjustment,  income-earning  re-orientation,  social identification   and   spatial   relocation  away  from  agricultural-based   modes  of  livelihood (Bryceson, 2000).

Amidst high levels of uncertainty and risk in agricultural production, rural women have become  occupationally  flexible  and  increasingly  dependent  on  non-agricultural  income- generating activities. This is to overcome seasonality of farming activities, reduce poverty and vulnerability, which are often associated with undue reliance on agriculture (Ellis, 2004). High variability in crop yield and thus income variability arising from the vagaries of weather makes occupational diversification important for the rural women in order to improve their economic status.

Recent developments in the social, economic and technological arenas have important effects on rural women in Anambra State. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2005) report  that  the  relevant  trends  in  globalization,  regional  economic  integration,  accelerated commercialization,   urbanization,   advances   in  agriculture   and   information   technologies, political  instability,  civil war, HIV/AIDS,  livestock  epidemics  and natural disasters  impact negatively  on  the  activities  of  rural  women  involved  in  occupational  diversification.  The multiple impacts on rural women bring significant implications for agricultural productivity, rural  production  and  economic  vitality,  household  food  security,  family  health,  family economic security and welfare.

According  to  FAO  (2002),  contributions  made  by  rural  women  in  occupational diversification  are increasingly affected by changes external to the  household. For instance, rural  poverty  has  acted  as  a  push  factor  whereas  new  economic  opportunities  outside agriculture have emerged as pull factors encouraging rural women to participate in off-farm and non-farm occupations. Although recent trends in agricultural diversification accompanied by commercialisation and marketisation have generated opportunities for non-farm paid work, rural women’s poor educational  attainment,  inadequate training and social immobility often have prevented them from responding to these opportunities (Mugniesyah, 2002).

In Anambra State, several poverty reduction programmes  designed for rural  women have  not  yielded  good  results  as  regards  reducing  poverty.  The  failure  of  many  poverty reduction programmes could be attributed to the fact that great diversity and heterogeneity in assets portfolios and range of activities engaged by rural women were ignored (De Janvry and Sadoulet, 2001).

There also exists lack of access to land or land ownership  among  rural women  in Anambra  State,  which  hinders  access  to credit  and agricultural  support  services.  With  an increasing rural population amidst a non-expanding land area as in Anambra State, the study sort  to  answer  the  following   questions:   What  are  the  various   areas  of  occupational diversification  among rural women?  What are the reasons for  occupational  diversification? What are the modes of occupational entry for each  occupational area? What are the human capital  attributes  influencing  occupational   diversification?   And  what  are  the  problems encountered by rural women who diversify occupation?

1.3 Purpose of the study

The general purpose of the study was to examine occupational diversification among rural women in Anambra State, Nigeria.

Specifically, the study was designed to:

1.   identify various areas of occupational diversification among rural women;

2.   ascertain their reasons for occupational diversification;

3.   ascertain modes of occupational entry for each occupational area;

4.   ascertain the influence of human capital attributes on occupational diversification;

and

5.   identify problems faced by rural women in occupational diversification.

1.4 Hypotheses of the study

1.   There is no significant relationship between socio-economic factors and occupational diversification among rural women.

2.   There are no significant differences between farm income and non-farm income of rural women.

3.   There is no significant relationship between occupational diversification and nearness to urban markets.

1.5 Significance of the study

The economic planning assumption is that all rural people are involved in agricultural production, but social changes show that rural women are involved in several occupations. The study in attempting to determine those areas of occupational diversification will help the rural development planners to determine strategies that will equip rural women with entrepreneurial skills  for  self  employment.   It  will  also  help   the  governments   and  non-governmental organizations  (NGOs)  to  pursue  programmes  that  meet  the  needs  of  rural  women.  The problems listed by rural women can serve as major areas of intervention by the government for greater productivity.

It will help policy makers to plan programmes for rural women’s empowerment thereby helping them to acquire training and skills that will equip them to become self employed and increase their incomes. The findings of this study will also help rural women to form women groups and cooperatives where they can pull their resources together to embark on economic activities that will yield high returns thus improving their livelihoods.

It is also expected that the results of the study will help to identify occupational choices of rural women and problems they encounter in the various occupations, proffer solutions that will serve as areas of intervention for policy makers to consider while making national policies that will favour women. This will empower them economically to face the challenges in the society.

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