GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF IRONSTONE EXPOSED AROUND MANIGI LOCALITY, NORTHERN BIDA BASIN, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of Ironstone around Manigi locality was investigated in order to provide a comprehensive data on the geological, geochemical and mineralogical composition. Field work, sedimentological logging, and sample collection were carried out at a road cut near Manigi in the northern part of Bida basin. Sixteen representative ironstone samples were subjected to geochemical and mineralogical studies using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, X-ray diffraction techniques and transmitted light microscopy. The sedimentological logging revealed the geology of the area to comprise of two  main  formations,  the  Enagi  overlain  by  the  Batati  Formation.  The  result  of  the chemical analysis revealed that the concentrations of Fe2O3 ranges from 28.73 – 85.60w% with an average of 52.65w% and averages of SiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2  are 33.5w%, 4.7w% and 0.9wt% respectively. Other components such as BaO2, CuO, CrO3, MnO, CaO, K2O, ZnO, Br, MgO, Rb2O, ZrO2, CdO, TaO5,  PbO, and HfO2  exist in a negligible amount. Calculation of the grade shows that the ironstone grade is 36.823% suggestive of low grade ore. Similarly low concentration of MgO ranging from 0.001wt% to 0.11wt% with an average of 0.025wt% and absence of sulfur in the ironstone shows that the sediment were deposited in a non marine or shallow marine environment. The mineralogical analysis revealed the presence of goethite and hematite as the major iron bearing minerals and quartz as major gangue materials. Thin section petrography reveals quartz as the predominant framework grain and iron cement as the cementing material. The floating contact displayed by the framework grains suggests that the iron cements were eodiagenetic in origin. It can be more useful as cast iron, although adequate beneficiation (to remove excess  silica)  and  transformation  of  goethite  to  hematite  can  make  it  useful  in  the production of iron and steel. Further studies to reveal the tonnage, extent and reserve estimation should be undertaken.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

The level of industrialization of a country is measured by their iron and steel development because they are the most widely used engineering materials for production, fabrication, construction and manufacture of most items including ships, automobile, domestic appliances and military hardware. This shows the reason why per capital consumption of steel is an index for measuring development in the economy of every country. The accessibility and development of the iron and steel sector is of principal significance for industrial growth, increased engineering capacity and enhancement of technical skills (Raw Materials Research and Development Council, 2010).

This  thesis  explores  the  geology,  geochemistry  and  mineralogy  of  ironstones  most especially those occurring in Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks in Bida Basin. The research is confined to the Ironstone exposed around Manigi locality in the extreme part of Northern Bida basin, located in Mashegu local government area of Niger State, Nigeria. It is the least investigated ironstone in the basin and the basin also is the least investigated among the major inland sedimentary basins in Nigeria.  Ironstone occurrences in this area are hosted in the Campanian to Maestrichtian rocks associated with sandstone, siltstone, and claystones. The ironstone was correlated with host rock by using mineralogical,  geochemical and sedimentological evidences.

The elemental abundance of iron varies between about 5% of the Earth’s crust and as much as 80% of the planet’s core (Morgan and Anders, 1980).This makes iron the fourth most abundant element on the earth crust. Iron oxide and hydroxide make up the primary iron ore minerals, because of their large amount of iron content and occurrence as large tonnage surface deposit (Frenczi, 2001).   However, iron is present in low concentration in most parts of the earth, thus a deposit must have a high percentage of the metal to be considered ore grade for economic purposes. Ideally, a deposit must contain at least 25% iron to be considered economically recoverable (Whiten and Brooks, 1972).  The presence of the amount of iron in rocks varies from an average of 2-3% in sedimentary rocks to 8.5% in igneous rocks (United State Environmental Protection Agency, 1994).

Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be extracted. An iron ore deposit is a mineral body of sufficient size, iron content, and chemical composition with physical and economic characteristics that will allow it to be a source of iron either immediately or potentially (Kennedy, 1990). Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of the main raw materials to make steel. Approximately 98% of the mined Iron ore is used to make steel (Mineral Information Institute, 2006). Ironstone is any rock  that  contains  great  percentage  of  iron  minerals  such  as  Haematite,  Goethite  or Limonite, Magnetite, Siderite, Ilmenite, Chamosite, and Pyrite. However for Ironstone to be useful in iron and steel industry, it must contain 25-35% Iron (Fe), < 0.3% Sulfur and < 0.4% Phosphorus (Whitens and Brooks, 1972).  Even though iron exist in many minerals, five primary sources of Iron are the  Magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (Fe2O3), Goethite/Limonite (FeO(OH)), Siderite (FeCO3), and Pyrite (FeS) (US EPA, 1994).

1.1.1    Types of iron ore deposits

Iron ores deposits are grouped in to different types. Evans, 1993; Robb, 2004; Boggs, 2006 classified iron ore deposits in terms of morphology, texture and mineralogy in to three main types, these are; Banded Iron Formation, Phanerozoic Iron, and Bog Iron deposits.

1.1.1.1 Banded iron formation (BIF)

These contain the bulk of the world’s Iron ore resources. It has more reserve and total production value than the bog and Phanerozoic iron deposits. The banded iron formation is a stratigraphic unit  composed of ironstone that may be cherty or non-cherty but with banded appearance. They were formed during substantially three periods throughout the Archean and Proterozoic earth history, namely 3500–3000 Ma, 2500–2000 Ma, and 1000– 500 Ma (Kimberley, 1989; Klein and  Beukes,  1993). These  periods  are equivalent to different tectonic settings that are referred to as Algoma, Lake Superior and Rapitan types (James and Trendall, 1982; James, 1983; Maynard, 1991; Klein and Beukes, 1993; Bekker et al., 2010, 2014). Algoma types are associated with volcanic arcs and examples are found in the greenstone belts of Ontario Canada. The Lake Superior types are mostly located on the stable continental platforms, example the Harmesely basin of Western Australia, the Transvaal basin of South Africa etc. While the Rapitan types are found associated with the glaciogenic sediments formed during the major Neoproterozoic ice ages and the examples are found in the Mckenzie mountain of Northwest Canada (Holland, 1984; Maynard, 1991; Robb, 2004; Boggs, 2006; Bekker et al., 2014). Some of the main iron minerals in the banded iron formation are hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), greenalite (Fe3Si2O5 (OH) 4), stilpnomelane (2(Fe, Mg)O (Al, Fe)2·O3·5SiO2·3H2O), minnesotaite ((Fe, Mg)3  Si4O10 (OH)2) and pyrite (FeS2)( Deer et al., 1992)

1.1.1.2 Phanerozoic ironstones

These ironstones were formed during Phanerozoic period and are usually referred to as the Phanerozoic ironstone deposits. The deposits are of widespread occurrence representing an important source of iron, before 1970s. They are Proterozoic to Cretaceous in age and are also referred to as the Oolitic or Pisolitic ironstone, occurring within marine terrigeneous sediment.  They  have  low  iron  content  (30-50%  Fe)  when  compare  with  BIF-hosted deposits (55-65% Fe) (Ferenczi, 2001). The term iron-rich is restricted to sedimentary rocks that contain at least 15% of total iron (Kimberley, 1994).Boggs (2006) used the term ironstone for non-banded, noncherty, commonly Oolitic, Iron-rich sedimentary rocks while the term iron formation was allocated to the cherty, well-banded Iron-rich sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary ironstone deposits are thin sequences that formed in shallow marine or non-marine environments (Young and Taylor, 1989).  Two types have been identified; ironstone deposits occurring in the Jurassic sediments of England and the Alsace-Lorraine region of France and Germany were referred to as Minette or Lorraine-type iron ores. Other types  recorded  in  North  America  were  known  as  Silurian  Clinton  type  iron  ores  of Kentucky and Alabama that are analogues of the younger European deposits (Bottke, 1981; Barnes, 1989; Evans, 1993; Mücke and Farshad, 2005).

The ironstone deposits in the Phanerozoic were formed in different ways, the most common being  the  oolite  type.  This  is  mainly  present  in  the  Ordovician,  Silurian,  Jurassic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic periods but shows a wide stratigraphic range from Precambrian to Holocene (Petránek and Van Houten, 1997). Most Oolite ores are economically exploited and major development took place during the Ordovician and Jurassic periods. Ordovician Iron oolites are found in North Africa, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, England, Poland, the Czech Republic (James, 1966). The Ordovician Oolitic Ironstones occur widely in marine shelf sequences of South west Europe (the Western European Platform), the Avalonian Terranes and in North Africa where they form the most important group of deposits of the two major periods of Phanerozoic ooidal ironstone generation (Ordovician- Devonian and Jurassic – Paleogene; (Young and Taylor, 1989). Van Hutton (1992) stressed that Cenozoic Ironstone is also of wide occurrence in the north central Africa and South west Europe in Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene episodes and mostly with ooid fabrics. Van Hutton, (1992), Petránek and Van Houten,( 1997) revealed that the Cenozoic Ironstone occurs in Northern Pakistan, western Siberia, southern Germany, Northwestern  Venezuela,  Northeastern  Colombia, Northwestern  Romania,  south-central United State of America (USA) and central North Africa. Some of the main iron bearing minerals  recognized  in  the  Phanerozoic  ironstone  include;  hematite  (Fe2O3),  goethite (FeO·OH), siderite (FeCO3), ankerite ((Ca, Mg, Fe)(CO3)2), ferroan dolomite (Ca Mg, Fe (CO3)2),  ferroan  calcite  ((Ca,  Fe)CO3),  pyrite  (FeS2),  jarosite  (KFe3 3+ (SO4)2(OH)6), 2+   2+     3+ chamosite    (3(Fe ,Mg)5Al    (AlSi3O10)(OH)8),    berthierine    (Fe, Fe ,Al,    Mg)2·3(Si, Al)2O5(OH)4), nontronite (NaO.3Fe2  ((Si, Al)4O10) (OH)2·nH2O) and glauconite (K Mg (Fe, Al) (SiO3)6·3H2O) ( Deer et al., 1992) in (Afify, 2016)

1.1.1.3 Bog iron deposits

The third type of iron ore deposits is the bog iron. They are mostly form in the swamp and lakes of glaciated tundra areas of the northern hemisphere examples occur in the northern Canada and Scandinavia (Boggs, 2006). Stanton (1972), Robb (2004) and Boggs, (2006) identified that the deposits are typically small and thin, and comprises concentrations of goethite and limonite associated with organic rich shale. They formed in recent geological periods in areas where Iron-bearing groundwater typically emerges as a spring. The iron is oxidized to ferric hydroxide upon encountering the oxidizing environment of the surface. Bog ore often combines goethite, magnetite, and vugs or stained quartz. Oxidation may occur through enzyme catalysis by iron bacteria. It is not clear whether the magnetite precipitates upon first contact with oxygen, and then oxidizes to ferric compounds, or whether the ferric compounds are reduced when exposed to anoxic conditions upon burial beneath the sediment surface and re-oxidized upon exhumation at the surface. Akande et al. (1998) reported the occurrence of bog iron in the Agbaja formation of southern Bida basin.

1.1.2    Mechanisms of formation of iron ore deposits

Many literatures  have  so  far  been  documented  on  the  origin  of  iron  ore  and  lots  of contrasting hypothesis dealing with the iron ore deposits. Young and Taylor (1989) submitted that sedimentary ironstone deposits are thin sequences that formed in shallow marine or non-marine environments. James (1966) postulated that the formation of iron could involve the mobilization and transport of the ore forming metals by seawards flowing groundwater  of  continental  origin.  According  to  (Van  Houten  and  Authur,  1989)  the formation of Ironstone could be related to a pattern of global tectonic cyclicity and specifically to times of continental dispersal and sea-level high stand, as well as periods of warmer climate and increased rates of chemical sedimentation. (Mücke, 2000; Mücke and Farshad, 2005) reveal that weathering of a variety of rocks under lateritic conditions and further transportation of iron through fluvial drainage systems into marine basins was pointed out as a model for ironstone formation. Also (Siehl and Thein, 1989) proposed that mechanical reworking, in-situ weathering and re-deposition from basement rocks in non- marine basins via river systems are the main processes leading to the accumulation of Iron under  pedogenic  conditions.  Their  model  simply  shows  the  transfer  of  the  pedogenic pisoids to a marginal marine setting with further mechanical abrasion and reworking/concentration of pisoids.

Sturesson et al., 1999 stressed that hydrothermal solutions produce iron oolites in certain areas today and erosion of volcanic rocks can locally cause enrichment of the elements needed for ooid formation. According to (Dreesen, 1989; Sturesson, 1992; Sturesson et al., 2000) Volcanism was a major source of iron leading to ironstone formation from volcanic ash with hydrothermal fluids enriching seawater in iron (Fe), Aluminium (Al) and Silicon (Si). Meanwhile, Kimberley (1989, 1994) also documented precipitation of iron from exhalative fluids allied with active faults. Other process that lead to the formation of different types of iron include; replacement of carbonates (Kimberley, 1979; Loope et al., 2011),  mechanical  accretion  of chamositic clay particles  (Bhattacharya and  Kakimoto, 1982; Van Houten and Burucker, 1984), precipitation in marine environment linked to sedimentary exhalative hydrothermal processes in tectonically active areas (Hein et al., 2016), and crystallization from precursor iron oxyhydroxide gels (Harder, 1989).

1.1.3    Iron ore deposits in Nigeria

It has been proven that Nigeria is blessed with abundant mineral resources (Bamali et al., 2011). The country is endowed with numerous iron ore deposit which are known to occur in two forms; these are the banded iron formation which occurs in folded bands and lenses associated  with  the  Precambrian  metasedimentary  schist  belts  and  the  Phanerazoic ironstone deposit (oolitic and pisolitic) deposits.

1.1.3.1 Banded iron formation (BIF)

Banded Iron Formation (BIF) occur in different location within the Precambrian Basement Complex of Nigeria associated with schist belts such as Lokoja-Okene-Kabba, Maru, Muro and Birnin Gwari schist belts (Figure.1.1).These rocks are commonly associated with the metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of late Proterozoic age. Three main facies of the BIFs in Nigeria are recognized; these include the oxide, silicate and sulphide facies. The most widespread been the oxide facies, represented by the banded silica-iron oxide assemblage. The silicate facies consists of the quartz-garnet grunerite assemblage, while the sulphide facies includes the pyrite-bearing carbonaceous schist or phyllite intercalated with iron-rich  layers  (Bolarinwa,  2017).  Nigeria  BIF  has  been  investigated  by  various researchers such as (Olade, 1978; Adekoya, 1998; Mucke and Neumann 1986; Okonkwo (1980) Adekoya et al., 2012). Itakpe iron ore deposit the Itakpe ore deposit around Okene are classified into a massive magnetite, a banded to granular hematite-magnetite, and a homogenous hematite-magnetite ores and they are regarded as a product of high grade amphibolite  facies  metamorphism  of  iron-rich  sediments  (Olade,  1978).  Mucke  and Neuman (1980) deduced from mineralogical studies, that a combine magmatic and contact metamorphic  processes  lead  in  to  the  formation  of  Itakpe  iron  ore  because  of  the association of certain primary minerals such as magnetite which is rich in exsolution bodies such as ilmenite occurring with Kaolinite plus relics of feldspar in the same paragenesis correspond  to  typical  intramagmatic  titanomagnetite  deposits.  Okonkwo  (1980)  also reported the occurrence of a banded iron formation BIF in the phyllite and quartz mica- schist of the Kushaka schist belt. Mucke and Neuman (1986) recorded magnetite rich deposit at Kukan, which was recorded to be igneous progenitor. They also reported dark iron-rich bands alternating with lighter quartz bands in the rocks of the Ajabonoko area. Adekoya (1998) and Adekoya et al. (2012) reported the occurrence of BIF within the pelitic to semi-pelitic phyllites of the Maru and Muro areas.

1.1.3.2 Phanerozoic ironstones

The second type of iron ore occurrence in Nigeria are the Phanerozoic ironstone also referred to as the Cretaceous sedimentary (Oolitic) Ironstone deposits. These can be found in Bida, Lokoja, Nsude and Taranji areas.

Records have shown the presence of sedimentary Ironstone in the Middle Niger basin also known as Bida or Nupe Basin in the central part of Nigeria. These Ironstones occur within the Upper Cretaceous alluvial and shallow marine facies sedimentary sequence of Bida basin (Ladipo et al., 1994). The basin host several Iron ore bodies, these include Agbaja, Lokoja, Patti, Bassa Nge, Ate, Sakpe, and Batati Ironstone. Cretaceous oolitic Ironstones deposits of appreciable reserves estimate variedly reported extensively occur over the basin.

These ironstones were first recognized by earlier workers such as Falconer (1911), Du preez (1952), Jones (1955, 1958), Adeleye and Dessauvagie (1972), Adeleye (1973).

Three contrasting models were proposed on the origin of ironstone in the Bida basin. These are; the sedimentary formation, lateritic and post- diagenetic genesis. (Falconer, 1911; Adeleye and Dessauvagie, 1972; Adeleye, 1973 and Oresajo, 1979) proposed sedimentary origin for the ironstone because of the depositional characteristics and field relationship of the ironstone to other sedimentary rocks in the basin. However Du preez (1956) suggested lateritic origin because of the presence of fossils in the ironstone beds. Also lateritic origin was suggested due to the presence of the iron oxide and hydroxide in the ooids (Jones 1955, 1956, 1958; Kogbe 1978). Lastly a post- diagenetic iron enrichment model was suggested by (Hasse, 1993; Mucke, 1994; Lapido et al., 1994; Abimbola, 1994).

1.3       Statement of the Research Problem

The global industrial revolution has generated the problem of high demand of iron and steel in most developed and developing nations like Nigeria because of its usefulness in engineering  construction  (building  of  bridges,  sky scrapers,  automobile,  ship  building, vehicles, pipes and other domestic appliances), production, fabrication and manufacture of most items including military hardware. In the world today, iron and steel are recognized as the keystones or bases to any country’s industrial development and a means of accelerating socio-economic development (Amigun and Ako, 2009).

Nigeria  is  blessed  with  abundant  deposits  of  iron  ore  (Banded  iron  formation  and Cretaceous oolithic and pisolithic ironstones) cutting across several states of the Federation (Niger, Kwara, Kogi, Benue, Nasarawa, Plateuau, Bauchi, Oyo, Kebbi, Kaduna, Borno, and Anambra State) with an estimated reserve reported to be about 2.3 billion tones (Bamalli et al., 2011; Ohimain, 2013).Works of (Adeleye and Dessauvagie, 1972;  Adeleye, 1973) indicate the presence of sedimentary ironstones (Oolithic and Pisolithic) around Sakpe and Batati locality in the Northern Bida basin, and are wide spread throughout the sub-basin. Adeleye (1973) categories Ironstones in the Northern Bida basin in to upper and lower ironstones, referred to as Batati and Sakpe Ironstones separated by the argillaceous Enagi Siltstone.  Adeleye and Dessauvagie (1972) identified the type locality of Batati Ironstone at  a  small  cliff,  7km  South  of  Batati  where  it  exposed  approximately  5meters.They observed that the Ironstone consist of brown, yellow to white oolites in a yellow limonitic silty matrix, And are dominated by argilacious goethitic, oolitic ironstone and a subsidiary sideritic, chloritic and  kaolinitic ironstone.  These ironstone occurrences  were not  well assessed; their total reserves and chemical qualities have not been studied in detail. Hence their availability as sources of iron ores for Nigerian steel industry was not emphasized. Not much have been reported on the upper ironstone of the northern Bida basin especially those cropping out around Manigi locality in the northern extreme of the basin.

However researchers such as Umeroah (1987), Abimbola (1997), Akande et al. (1999), Agunleti and Salau (2015) and Imrana and Haruna (2017) have investigated the Agbaja ironstone which is the lateral equivalent of Batati Ironstone in the southern Bida basin.

1.4       Justification for the Research

Very little literatures have so far been documented on the upper Ironstone of Cretaceous sedimentary sequence of northern Bida basin. Must work carry out in the basin such as (Adeleye and Dessauvagie, 1972; Adeleye, 1974; Braide, 1992a; Olaniyan and Olubaniyi, 1996; Okosun et al., 2007 and Goro et al., 2014) focused on the stratigraphy, sedimentological   aspect   and   depositional   environment   of   the   sediments.   Although (Adeleye,  1973)  observed  the  source  rock  of  the  ironstone  through  their  combined petrology and facies association in space and time in the central part of the basin near Bida town. He did not extend to the extreme north of the basin. His use of petrographic thin section analysis failed to coin out the geochemistry of the Ironstone in the central part of the basin. Hence there is need for detailed study of the Ironstone using an integrated method of Geochemical and petrographic analyses. More recently Olurunfemi and Waziri (2018) investigated the geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of Sakpe Ironstone at Jima, near Bida. They reported that the ironstone is of high grade, low magnesium content and lack sulphur, which is an indication that the sediments were deposited in a non marine to shallow marine environment. The present work focuses on the geology, mineralogy and the geochemistry of Batati Ironstone exposed around Manigi locality in the extreme northern Bida basin. The research will provide information the petrology and geochemistry of part of Batati Ironstone cropping out around Manigi, Kawo-Mashegu -Makera area in the extreme northern Bida basin.

1.5       Aim and Objectives of the Research

The aim of this research is to investigate the geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of Ironstone exposed at a road cut near Manigi along Jebba-Kaduna road, Northern Bida basin, Northwestern Nigeria. With the intention of assessing the ore grade of the Ironstone.

The objectives are to:

1.   Documents sedimentological features of the exposed part of the Batati Ironstone near Manigi locality

2.   Determine the textural and mineralogical composition of the Ironstone

3.   Determine the geochemistry of the Ironstone.

4.   Assess the ore grade of the Ironstone using the percentage of elements of major interest.

1.6       Scope of the Research

The present work is restricted to field geological study which involved sedimentological logging of well expose outcrop section in the area to identify rocks lithologic units, geological mapping and collection of representative samples. Laboratory studies involving petrographic thin-section, mineralogy and geochemical analysis (trace and major elements characteristics) of the representative samples collected from the field in order to achieve the above stated objective.

1.7       Study area

1.7.1    Location extent and accessibility of the study area

The study was conducted within and around area between Manigi and Kawo-Mashegu localities in Mashegu local government area of Niger state in the North-central, Nigeria. It coordinates lies within latitude 9ᵒ45′20″ to 9ᵒ47′30″N and longitude 5ᵒ30′40″ to 5ᵒ33′20″E covering  approximately  16  kilometer  square  in  the  extreme  Northern  Bida  basin (Figure1.2).  The area is traverse by major road (Kaduna- Jebba road), number of minor roads and footpaths are used in order to access the area especially where good exposures are found. It is also drained by seasonal rivers and streams.

1.7.2    Relief and drainage of the study area

The topography of the area is an undulating terrain characterized by limited lowland and spotted outcrops forming mesas, consisting of different layers and varying litholofacies which include the basal Bida sandstone, Enagi Siststone/mudstone and the Batati Ironstone at the top. The ironstones occur as a cap on top of the NE-SW trending ridges (Mesas) that characterized the area.

The geomorphological features in the northern Bida basin consist of river Niger, its flood plain and tributaries characterized by belt of mesas and plains. The area is being drained by Rivers Niger and Kaduna. Other minor rivers and streams flow in to the main rivers, the streams are intermittent and thus dry off at the peak of dry season. Generally, the drainage pattern is simply dendritic, where many tributaries join the major river.

1.7.3    Climate and vegetation

The studied area has a climate that is related to its neighboring city (Kontagora) which lies within a tropical climate characterized by the alternating wet and dry season. In winter (Harmmatan), there is much less rainfall than in summer (raining season). This climate is considered to be Aw according to the Koppen Geiger climate classification. The average temperature here is 26.4ºC in a year and the average rainfall is 1162 mm. The least amount of rainfall occurs in December and the highest occur in August-September with an average of 268mm. The temperatures are highest on average in April at around 30.2ºC. In August, the average temperature is 24.3ºC this is the lowest average temperature of the whole year

Vegetation in the area is typical of Guinea savannah like in other parts of the country where this biome occurs, it is characterized by woodlands, where grasses occur either totally or mixed with other herbaceous or shrubby plants. The grasses are green in the wet season with fresh leaves, but become dry during the dry season when bush burning, fire wood cutting and other human activities are triggered.

1.7.4  Human geography and Land use

The people that settle in the minor and major settlement around the area are Nupe, Cambari and some Hausa-Fulani. The districts are mainly inhabited by peasant farmers that grow maize, guinea corn, and groundnuts during the rainy season. In the dry season, most of the inhabitants graze their animals, while others turn to other business activities like trading between nearby town and villages.

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