DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PAD FROM COMPOSITES OF SHEA NUT (VITELLARIA PARADOXA) SHELL AND COW HOOF (BAUHINIA UNGULATA)

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

Eggplant  (Solanum  melongena  L.)  is  a  warm-weather  crop  mostly  cultivated  in  tropical  and subtropical regions of the world  (Daunay and Hazra,  2012). Vegetables (leafy and fruits) are widely grown in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa, especially, in the urban areas, and they constitute the most affordable and sustainable source of micronutrients in diets (Lucier and Jerardo, 2006). The name eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), also known as aubergine or brinjal, has been cultivated for centuries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Near East and is currently a crop species of global importance. Ninety (90) percent of the eggplant production came from five countries, including China, India, Iran, Egypt, and Turkey (FAO, 2012). The cultivated areas exceed more than 1,600,000 ha and the total yields was 43,573,139 tons yearly (FAO, 2012). The global production of eggplant increased to 50 million tons annually, with a net value of more than US$10 billion a year, which makes it the fifth most economically important solanaceous crop after potato, tomato, pepper, and tobacco (FAO, 2014). It is an economic flowering plant belonging to the family Solanaceae, of which members of about 1,400 species found throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the world are mostly herbaceous plants.

The fruit of the plant comes in a wide array of shapes and colours, some are yellow and small with green stripes. There are the big yellow ones with white colour and flat ribbed green types among others (Plazas et al., 2014). Regarding nutritional value, eggplant has a very low caloric value and is considered among the healthiest vegetables for its high content of vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds for human health ( Docimo et al., 2016).

Nutritionally, Eggplant contains water (92.5 %), protein (1 %), fat (0.3 %), and carbohydrates (6 %). They contain between 30 and 50 % of iron (Fe), fiber, potassium (K), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and vitamins; thiamin (vitamin B1), B6, folate, magnesium and niacin. Eggplant also contains phyto- nutrients such as nasunin and chlorogenic acid (Sabo and Dia, 2009). It is a valuable vegetable for canning industries for eggplant paste, sautéed Eggplant and other products. The fruits are fried, stewed, marinated and prepared in other ways. Eggplant with its bitter taste and spongy texture could really make an amazing pot of stew with a nice aroma. When eaten with boiled yam or rice. It is a delicacy that is well cherished by the people (Raigón et al., 2008).

The bioactive properties of eggplant are mostly associated with high content in phenolic compounds (Plazas et al., 2013). Which are mostly phenolic acids, particularly chlorogenic acid in the fruit flesh (Stommel et al.,  2015) Both phenolic acids and anthocyanins have multiple properties beneficial for human health (Plazas et al.,  2013; Braga et al.,  2016). The plant can be regarded as a brain food because it houses the anthocyanin phyto-nutrient found in its skin, nasunin, a potent antioxidant and free radical scavenger that has been shown to protect cell membranes from damage. Studies have shown that nasunin protects the fats in brain cell membranes. Nasunin is not only a potent free radical scavenger, but is also an iron chelator (Stommel et al.,  2015). Iron is an essential nutrient, necessary for oxygen transport, normal immune function and collagen synthesis, but when it becomes too much in the blood stream; it becomes a major concern. Excess iron increases free radical production and isassociated with an increased risk of heart disease and cancer (Stommel et al., 2015).

The predominant phenolic compound found in eggplant is chlorogenic acid, which is one of the most potent free radical scavengers found in plant tissues. The chlorogenic acid performs antimutagenic (anticancer) activities in the body. It also performs anti- LDL (bad cholesterol) activities by increasing the levels of HDL (good cholesterol) in the body and at the same time has antiviral and antimicrobial properties. Consuming high amounts of eggplant have been found to be beneficial for people with glaucoma because it lowers the eye pressure (Harish et al., 2008). Egg plant is low in calories and high in fiber. The eggplant is good for carbohydrate counters and dieters can actually snack on garden eggs in-between meals. In Nigeria, eggplant is a very important vegetable crop grown on commercial scale in some parts of the country. However, the small scale growers account for at least 86% of the total production. In the South -East of Nigeria, specifically, in Abia State, garden-egg popularly called “mikimiki“ (big sized green fruit with very deep and sweet “endocarp”) is grown commercially while in the savannah zone of Nigeria; the yellow, white and thick green skinned varieties are grown on large scale (FAO, 2009).

The production and economy of crops is affected in a variety of ways by  nematodes particularly in terms of quality and quantity. Various types of pests are responsible for low yield. The vegetables are attacked by many pests including root-knot nematodes especially M. incognita. Meloidogyne incognita stood out as the dominant group of plant parasites. More than 300 plant species are attacked by M. incognita resulting in severe damage and losses ( Kayani et al., 2013).

Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species) are microscopic and parasitic nematodes which can be found in the roots of infected plants. Under Meloidogyne genus, there are about 98 species and common species encountered by farmers are M. incognita, M. javanica, M. hapla, and M. arenaria (Jones et al., 2013). They can exist either in hot climates or short winters around the world. In a report by Gill and Mcsorley (2011), root-knot nematode is one of the most damaging groups of plant- parasitic nematodes and these nematodes are pests of almost all major crops. In addition, Karajeh (2008) stated that about 5% of the world crop production is destroyed by Meloidogyne species every year. Damage caused by the nematodes can be determined by measuring reductions in growth and yields of annual crops. Eggplant suffers from a number of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, nematodes and phyto-plasma (Banglapedia, 2006).

1.2       Statement of the Research Problem

Eggplant (Solanum spps.) is one of the commonly grown crops in Nigeria, but the yield has been very low as a result of some associated problems like insect pest and disease caused by nematodes (FAO, 2008). Nematodes are distributed worldwide and are obligate parasite of the roots of thousands of plant species. The increasing demand of eggplants has increased along with the rapid growth of population. This is due to the increasing awareness toward the benefit of vegetables in fulfilling the nutrient of the family ( Jumini and Marliah, 2009).

1.3       Justification of the Study

Meloidogyne species are microscopic and parasitic nematodes which can be found in the roots of infected plants. Root-knot nematodes survive well in appropriate hosts. Nematode populations increase to the maximum level in susceptible plants resulting in death before maturity. Eggplant and other vegetables are attacked by many pests including root-knot nematodes especially M. incognita. M. incognita stood out as one of the most dominant group of plant parasites. More than 300 plant species are attacked by M. incognita resulting in severe damage and losses including eggplant and the nematode continues to damage eggplant at higher inoculums levels. (Hussain et al., 2012; Kayani et al., 2013). In view of these, the research work was carried out to evaluate the effects of M. incognita on the growth and yield of Solanum spp. in Minna.

1.4       Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of Meloidogyne incognita on the growth and yield of some varieties of eggplant (Solanum spp) in Minna, Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. The objectives were to:

i.           determine the effect of Meloidogyne incognita on the growth of four  varieties of eggplants.

ii.           determine the effect of Meloidogyne incognita on the yield of four varieties of eggplants.

iii.          determine the reaction of Solanum spp to Meloidogyne incognita on host status.

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